Preface with publisher's acknowledgments |
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xiii | |
About the author |
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xxi | |
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1 | (32) |
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2 | (1) |
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1.2 A short historical note |
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3 | (2) |
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5 | (9) |
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1.4 Classification of sensors and actuators |
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14 | (4) |
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1.5 General requirements for interfacing |
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18 | (3) |
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21 | (8) |
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21 | (1) |
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22 | (1) |
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1.6.3 Supplementary units |
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23 | (1) |
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23 | (2) |
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25 | (1) |
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1.6.6 Other units and measures |
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26 | (3) |
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1.6.7 Convention for use of units |
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29 | (1) |
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29 | (3) |
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32 | (1) |
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2 Performance characteristics of sensors and actuators |
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33 | (44) |
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33 | (1) |
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2.2 Input and output characteristics |
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34 | (33) |
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34 | (4) |
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2.2.2 Impedance and impedance matching |
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38 | (4) |
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2.2.3 Range, span, input and output full scale, resolution, and dynamic range |
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42 | (4) |
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2.2.4 Accuracy, errors, and repeatability |
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46 | (3) |
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2.2.5 Sensitivity and sensitivity analysis |
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49 | (8) |
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2.2.6 Hysteresis, nonlinearity, and saturation |
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57 | (4) |
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2.2.7 Frequency response, response time, and bandwidth |
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61 | (3) |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (1) |
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68 | (9) |
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3 Temperature sensors and thermal actuators |
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77 | (70) |
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77 | (3) |
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3.1.1 Units of temperature, thermal conductivity, heat, and heat capacity |
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79 | (1) |
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3.2 Thermoresistive sensors |
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80 | (20) |
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3.2.1 Resistance temperature detectors |
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80 | (13) |
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3.2.2 Silicon resistive sensors |
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93 | (3) |
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96 | (4) |
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3.3 Thermoelectric sensors |
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100 | (17) |
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3.3.1 Practical considerations |
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107 | (7) |
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3.3.2 Semiconductor thermocouples |
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114 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Thermopiles and thermoelectric generators |
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114 | (3) |
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3.4 p--n junction temperature sensors |
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117 | (5) |
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3.5 Other temperature sensors |
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122 | (11) |
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3.5.1 Optical and acoustical sensors |
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122 | (2) |
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3.5.2 Thermomechanical sensors and actuators |
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124 | (9) |
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133 | (14) |
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4 Optical sensors and actuators |
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147 | (56) |
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148 | (1) |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (1) |
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4.4 Effects of optical radiation |
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151 | (6) |
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151 | (1) |
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151 | (6) |
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4.5 Quantum-based optical sensors |
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157 | (17) |
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4.5.1 Photoconducting sensors |
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157 | (5) |
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162 | (5) |
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4.5.3 Photovoltaic diodes |
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167 | (4) |
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171 | (3) |
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4.6 Photoelectric sensors |
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174 | (4) |
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4.6.1 The photoelectric sensor |
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174 | (1) |
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175 | (3) |
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4.7 Charge coupled (CCD) sensors and detectors |
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178 | (3) |
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4.8 Thermal-based optical sensors |
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181 | (8) |
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181 | (8) |
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4.9 Active far infrared (AFIR) sensors |
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189 | (1) |
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190 | (1) |
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191 | (12) |
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5 Electric and magnetic sensors and actuators |
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203 | (126) |
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204 | (1) |
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205 | (3) |
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5.3 The electric field: capacitive sensors and actuators |
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208 | (15) |
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5.3.1 Capacitive position, proximity, and displacement sensors |
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210 | (5) |
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5.3.2 Capacitive fluid level sensors |
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215 | (3) |
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5.3.3 Capacitive actuators |
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218 | (5) |
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5.4 Magnetic fields: sensors and actuators |
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223 | (27) |
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229 | (13) |
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5.4.2 Hall effect sensors |
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242 | (8) |
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5.5 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) sensors and actuators |
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250 | (4) |
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5.5.1 MHD generator or sensor |
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250 | (1) |
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5.5.2 MHD pump or actuator |
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251 | (3) |
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5.6 Magnetoresistance and magnetoresistive sensors |
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254 | (2) |
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5.7 Magnetostrictive sensors and actuators |
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256 | (7) |
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5.7.1 Magnetostrictive actuators |
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260 | (3) |
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263 | (7) |
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263 | (2) |
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5.8.2 The fluxgate magnetometer |
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265 | (4) |
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269 | (1) |
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270 | (28) |
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5.9.1 Voice coil actuators |
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271 | (4) |
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5.9.2 Motors as actuators |
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275 | (19) |
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5.9.3 Magnetic solenoid actuators and magnetic valves |
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294 | (4) |
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5.10 Voltage and current sensors |
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298 | (11) |
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298 | (4) |
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302 | (4) |
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5.10.3 Resistance sensors |
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306 | (3) |
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309 | (20) |
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6 Mechanical sensors and actuators |
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329 | (64) |
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329 | (1) |
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6.2 Some definitions and units |
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330 | (2) |
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332 | (16) |
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332 | (2) |
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6.3.2 Semiconductor strain gauges |
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334 | (7) |
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6.3.3 Other strain gauges |
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341 | (1) |
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6.3.4 Force and tactile sensors |
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342 | (6) |
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348 | (8) |
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6.4.1 Capacitive accelerometers |
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349 | (2) |
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6.4.2 Strain gauge accelerometers |
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351 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Magnetic accelerometers |
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351 | (2) |
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6.4.4 Other accelerometers |
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353 | (3) |
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356 | (12) |
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6.5.1 Mechanical pressure sensors |
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356 | (5) |
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6.5.2 Piezoresistive pressure sensors |
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361 | (5) |
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6.5.3 Capacitive pressure sensors |
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366 | (1) |
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6.5.4 Magnetic pressure sensors |
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366 | (2) |
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368 | (5) |
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6.7 Inertial sensors: gyroscopes |
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373 | (6) |
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6.7.1 Mechanical or rotor gyroscopes |
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373 | (2) |
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375 | (4) |
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379 | (14) |
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7 Acoustic sensors and actuators |
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393 | (72) |
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394 | (1) |
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7.2 Units and definitions |
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395 | (3) |
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7.3 Elastic waves and their properties |
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398 | (12) |
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400 | (9) |
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409 | (1) |
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409 | (1) |
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410 | (1) |
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410 | (7) |
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7.4.1 The carbon microphone |
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410 | (1) |
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7.4.2 The magnetic microphone |
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411 | (2) |
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7.4.3 The ribbon microphone |
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413 | (1) |
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7.4.4 Capacitive microphones |
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414 | (3) |
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7.5 The piezoelectric effect |
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417 | (7) |
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421 | (1) |
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7.5.2 Piezoelectric sensors |
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421 | (3) |
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424 | (10) |
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424 | (5) |
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7.6.2 Headphones and buzzers |
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429 | (5) |
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7.7 Ultrasonic sensors and actuators: transducers |
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434 | (8) |
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7.7.1 Pulse-echo operation |
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437 | (4) |
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7.7.2 Magnetostrictive transducers |
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441 | (1) |
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7.8 Piezoelectric actuators |
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442 | (5) |
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7.9 Piezoelectric resonators and saw devices |
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447 | (5) |
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452 | (13) |
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8 Chemical and biological sensors and actuators |
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465 | (62) |
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8.1 Introduction---chemistry and biochemistry |
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466 | (2) |
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468 | (2) |
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8.3 Electrochemical sensors |
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470 | (7) |
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8.3.1 Metal oxide sensors |
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470 | (3) |
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8.3.2 Solid electrolyte sensors |
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473 | (3) |
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8.3.3 The metal oxide semiconductor chemical sensor |
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476 | (1) |
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8.4 Potentiometric sensors |
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477 | (8) |
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8.4.1 Glass membrane sensors |
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478 | (3) |
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8.4.2 Soluble inorganic salt membrane sensors |
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481 | (1) |
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8.4.3 Polymer-immobilized ionophore membranes |
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482 | (1) |
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8.4.4 Gel-immobilized enzyme membranes |
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483 | (1) |
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8.4.5 The ion-sensitive field-effect transistor |
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484 | (1) |
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8.5 Thermochemical sensors |
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485 | (5) |
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8.5.1 Thermistor-based chemical sensors |
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485 | (2) |
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487 | (2) |
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8.5.3 Thermal conductivity sensors |
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489 | (1) |
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8.6 Optical chemical sensors |
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490 | (5) |
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495 | (3) |
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8.7.1 Mass humidity and gas sensors |
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496 | (1) |
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497 | (1) |
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8.8 Humidity and moisture sensors |
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498 | (8) |
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8.8.1 Capacitive moisture sensors |
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499 | (3) |
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8.8.2 Resistive humidity sensor |
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502 | (1) |
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8.8.3 Thermal conduction moisture sensors |
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503 | (1) |
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8.8.4 Optical humidity sensor |
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503 | (3) |
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506 | (8) |
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8.9.1 The catalytic converter |
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507 | (2) |
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509 | (1) |
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510 | (2) |
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8.9.4 Cathodic protection |
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512 | (2) |
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514 | (13) |
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9 Radiation sensors and actuators |
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527 | (62) |
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528 | (2) |
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530 | (1) |
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531 | (16) |
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9.3.1 Ionization sensors (detectors) |
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531 | (6) |
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9.3.2 Scintillation sensors |
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537 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Semiconductor radiation detectors |
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538 | (9) |
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547 | (16) |
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550 | (13) |
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9.5 Antennas as sensors and actuators |
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563 | (11) |
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564 | (1) |
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9.5.2 Antennas as sensing elements |
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565 | (8) |
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9.5.3 Antennas as actuators |
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573 | (1) |
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574 | (15) |
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10 MEMS and smart sensors and actuators |
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589 | (76) |
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590 | (1) |
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591 | (7) |
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10.3 MEMS sensors and actuators |
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598 | (22) |
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599 | (10) |
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609 | (7) |
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616 | (4) |
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10.4 Nanosensors and actuators |
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620 | (1) |
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10.5 Smart sensors and actuators |
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621 | (23) |
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10.5.1 Wireless sensors and actuators and issues associated with their use |
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626 | (5) |
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10.5.2 Modulation and demodulation |
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631 | (8) |
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639 | (1) |
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10.5.4 Encoding and decoding |
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640 | (4) |
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10.6 RFIDs and embedded sensors |
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644 | (3) |
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647 | (5) |
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652 | (13) |
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11 Interfacing methods and circuits |
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665 | (104) |
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666 | (2) |
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668 | (17) |
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11.2.1 The operational amplifier |
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669 | (4) |
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11.2.2 Inverting and noninverting amplifiers |
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673 | (3) |
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11.2.3 The voltage follower |
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676 | (1) |
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11.2.4 The instrumentation amplifier |
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677 | (1) |
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11.2.5 The charge amplifier |
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678 | (2) |
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11.2.6 The integrator and the differentiator |
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680 | (2) |
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11.2.7 The current amplifier |
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682 | (1) |
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682 | (3) |
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685 | (4) |
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11.3.1 Linear power amplifiers |
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685 | (2) |
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11.3.2 PWM and PWM amplifiers |
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687 | (2) |
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689 | (8) |
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11.5 AID and D/A converters |
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697 | (14) |
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697 | (10) |
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707 | (4) |
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711 | (8) |
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712 | (4) |
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716 | (3) |
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719 | (6) |
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11.7.1 Four-wire transmission |
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720 | (1) |
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11.7.2 Two-wire transmission for passive sensors |
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721 | (1) |
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11.7.3 Two-wire transmission for active sensors |
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721 | (4) |
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11.7.4 Digital data transmission protocols and buses |
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725 | (1) |
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11.8 Excitation methods and circuits |
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725 | (18) |
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11.8.1 Linear power supplies |
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726 | (2) |
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11.8.2 Switching power supplies |
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728 | (3) |
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731 | (1) |
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11.8.4 Voltage references |
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732 | (2) |
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734 | (9) |
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743 | (4) |
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11.9.1 Solar power harvesting |
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744 | (1) |
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11.9.2 Thermal gradient power harvesting |
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744 | (1) |
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11.9.3 Magnetic induction and RF power harvesting |
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745 | (1) |
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11.9.4 Power harvesting from vibrations |
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746 | (1) |
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11.10 Noise and interference |
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747 | (4) |
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748 | (1) |
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748 | (3) |
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751 | (18) |
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12 Interfacing to microprocessors |
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769 | (64) |
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770 | (1) |
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12.2 The microprocessor as a general-purpose controller |
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771 | (19) |
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771 | (2) |
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773 | (1) |
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12.2.3 Execution and speed |
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773 | (1) |
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12.2.4 Instruction set and programming |
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774 | (3) |
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777 | (4) |
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781 | (2) |
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783 | (1) |
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783 | (2) |
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785 | (4) |
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12.2.10 Other peripherals and functionalities |
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789 | (1) |
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12.2.11 Programs and programmability |
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790 | (1) |
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12.3 General requirements for interfacing sensors and actuators |
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790 | (19) |
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791 | (1) |
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792 | (4) |
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12.3.3 Frequency and frequency response |
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796 | (2) |
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12.3.4 Input signal conditioning |
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798 | (8) |
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806 | (3) |
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809 | (11) |
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809 | (3) |
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12.4.2 Computation errors |
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812 | (5) |
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12.4.3 Sampling and quantization errors |
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817 | (1) |
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818 | (2) |
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820 | (13) |
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Appendix A Least squares polynomials and data fitting |
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833 | (4) |
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A.1 Linear least square data fitting |
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833 | (2) |
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A.2 Parabolic least squares fit |
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835 | (2) |
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Appendix B Thermoelectric reference tables |
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837 | (16) |
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B.1 Type J thermocouples (iron/constantan) |
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837 | (2) |
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B.2 Type K thermocouples (chromel/alumel) |
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839 | (2) |
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B.3 Type T thermocouples (copper/constantan) |
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841 | (2) |
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B.4 Type E thermocouples (chromel/constantan) |
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843 | (2) |
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B.5 Type N thermocouples (nickel/chromium--silicon) |
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845 | (2) |
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B.6 Type B thermocouples (platinum [ 30%]/rhodium--platinum) |
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847 | (1) |
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B.7 Type R thermocouples (platinum [ 13%]/rhodium--platinum) |
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848 | (3) |
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B.8 Type S thermocouples (platinum [ 10%]/rhodium--platinum) |
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851 | (2) |
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Appendix C Computation on microprocessors |
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853 | (10) |
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C.1 Representation of numbers on microprocessors |
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853 | (3) |
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C.1.1 Binary numbers: unsigned integers |
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853 | (1) |
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854 | (1) |
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C.1.3 Hexadecimal numbers |
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855 | (1) |
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856 | (4) |
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C.2.1 Addition and subtraction of binary integers |
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856 | (1) |
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C.2.2 Multiplication and division |
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857 | (3) |
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C.3 Fixed point arithmetic |
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860 | (3) |
Answers to problems |
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863 | (18) |
Index |
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881 | |