Series Preface |
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xv | |
Preface to Volume 1: Short-Circuits in AC and DC Systems |
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xvii | |
Author |
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xix | |
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1 Design and Analyses Concepts of Power Systems |
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1 | (34) |
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1.1 Static and Dynamic Systems |
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2 | (1) |
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3 | (2) |
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1.3 Linear and Nonlinear Systems |
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5 | (1) |
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1.3.1 Property of Decomposition |
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6 | (1) |
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1.4 Linearizing a Nonlinear System |
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6 | (3) |
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1.5 Time-Invariant Systems |
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9 | (2) |
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1.6 Lumped and Distributed Parameters |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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1.8 Planning and Design of Electrical Power Systems |
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12 | (2) |
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1.9 Electrical Standards and Codes |
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14 | (1) |
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1.10 Reliability Analyses |
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15 | (10) |
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16 | (1) |
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1.10.1.1 Exponential Distribution |
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17 | (1) |
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1.10.2 Data for Reliability Evaluations |
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18 | (1) |
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1.10.3 Methods of Evaluation |
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18 | (4) |
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1.10.4 Reliability and Safety |
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22 | (3) |
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1.11 Extent of System Modeling |
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25 | (3) |
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1.11.1 Short-Circuit Calculations |
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26 | (2) |
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1.11.2 Load Flow Calculations |
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28 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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1.12 Power System Studies |
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28 | (1) |
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1.13 Power System Studies Software |
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29 | (1) |
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30 | (5) |
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30 | (2) |
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32 | (3) |
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2 Modern Electrical Power Systems |
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35 | (50) |
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35 | (3) |
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2.1.1 Utility Companies in the USA |
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36 | (1) |
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2.1.2 North American Power System Interconnections |
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37 | (1) |
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2.2 Deregulation of Power Industry |
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38 | (1) |
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2.2.1 Generation Company (GENCO) |
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38 | (1) |
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2.2.2 Transmission Company (TRANSCO) |
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39 | (1) |
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2.2.3 Distribution Company (DISTCO) |
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39 | (1) |
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2.3 The New Energy Platform |
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39 | (14) |
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2.3.1 Sustainable, Renewable, and Green Energy |
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40 | (1) |
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41 | (1) |
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2.3.3 Hydroelectric Plants |
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41 | (2) |
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2.3.4 Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Plants |
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43 | (1) |
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43 | (4) |
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47 | (1) |
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47 | (1) |
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2.3.5.3 Nuclear Power around the Globe |
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48 | (1) |
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2.3.5.4 Is Nuclear Power Green Energy? |
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48 | (1) |
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49 | (1) |
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2.3.7 Solar and Wind Energy |
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50 | (1) |
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2.3.8 Biofuels and Carbon-Neutral Fuels |
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50 | (1) |
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2.3.9 Local Green Energy Systems |
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51 | (1) |
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51 | (1) |
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2.3.11 Reducing Caron Emissions |
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52 | (1) |
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2.4 Large Power Stations of the World |
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53 | (4) |
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57 | (2) |
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2.5.1 Legislative Measures |
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58 | (1) |
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2.5.2 Technologies Driving Smart Grid |
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58 | (1) |
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2.6 Microgrids and Distributed Generation |
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59 | (4) |
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63 | (5) |
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64 | (3) |
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67 | (1) |
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2.7.2.1 Applications in Electrical Systems |
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68 | (1) |
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68 | (1) |
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69 | (2) |
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2.10 Distribution Systems |
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71 | (6) |
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72 | (1) |
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2.10.2 The Parallel or Loop System |
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73 | (1) |
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2.10.3 Network or Grid System |
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73 | (2) |
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2.10.4 Primary Distribution System |
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75 | (2) |
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77 | (1) |
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2.12 Underground versus OH Systems |
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77 | (3) |
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78 | (2) |
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80 | (5) |
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80 | (1) |
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2.13.2 HVDC Configurations and Operating Modes |
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80 | (2) |
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82 | (1) |
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82 | (2) |
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84 | (1) |
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3 Wind and Solar Power Generation and Interconnections with Utility |
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85 | (46) |
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3.1 Prospective of Wind Generation in the USA |
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85 | (2) |
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3.2 Characteristics of Wind Power Generation |
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87 | (6) |
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3.2.1 Maximum Transfer Capability |
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91 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Power Reserves and Regulation |
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92 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Congestion Management |
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93 | (1) |
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3.3 Wind Energy Conversion |
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93 | (4) |
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94 | (2) |
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96 | (1) |
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96 | (1) |
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97 | (2) |
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99 | (4) |
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101 | (1) |
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3.5.2 Behavior under Faults and Low-Voltage Ride Through |
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102 | (1) |
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103 | (4) |
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3.6.1 Induction Generators |
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103 | (2) |
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3.6.2 Direct Coupled Induction Generator |
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105 | (1) |
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3.6.3 Induction Generator Connected to Grid through Full Size Converter |
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105 | (1) |
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3.6.4 Doubly Fed Induction Generator |
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106 | (1) |
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3.6.5 Synchronous Generators |
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107 | (1) |
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3.7 Reactive Power and Wind Turbine Controls |
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107 | (4) |
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3.8 Power Electronics and Harmonics |
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111 | (2) |
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111 | (1) |
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112 | (1) |
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113 | (2) |
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3.9.1 A Wind Turbine Controller |
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113 | (2) |
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115 | (1) |
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116 | (4) |
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3.11.1 Solar Energy Collectors |
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116 | (1) |
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3.11.1.1 Parabolic Dish Concentrators |
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117 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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3.11.2.1 Photovoltaic Trackers |
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119 | (1) |
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3.12 Direct Conversion of Solar Energy through PV Cells |
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120 | (1) |
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3.12.1 Cells, Modules, Panels, and Systems |
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120 | (1) |
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120 | (1) |
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121 | (1) |
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121 | (1) |
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3.12.1.4 PV Array Subfield |
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121 | (1) |
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3.13 Classification of Solar Cells |
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121 | (2) |
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3.14 Utility Connections of Distributed Resources |
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123 | (8) |
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123 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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3.14.4 Distribution Secondary Spot Networks |
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124 | (1) |
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3.14.5 Inadvertent Energization |
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124 | (1) |
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124 | (1) |
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124 | (1) |
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124 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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3.14.10 Paralleling Device |
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125 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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3.14.12 Abnormal Frequencies |
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125 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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127 | (4) |
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4 Short-Circuit Currents and Symmetrical Components |
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131 | (42) |
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4.1 Nature of Short-Circuit Currents |
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132 | (3) |
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4.2 Symmetrical Components |
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135 | (3) |
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4.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors |
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138 | (1) |
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4.4 Symmetrical Component Transformation |
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139 | (7) |
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4.4.1 Similarity Transformation |
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139 | (2) |
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4.4.2 Decoupling a Three-Phase Symmetrical System |
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141 | (4) |
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4.4.3 Decoupling a Three-Phase Unsymmetrical System |
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145 | (1) |
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4.4.4 Power Invariance in Symmetrical Component Transformation |
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146 | (1) |
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4.5 Clarke Component Transformation |
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146 | (4) |
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4.6 Characteristics of Symmetrical Components |
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150 | (3) |
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4.7 Sequence Impedance of Network Components |
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153 | (15) |
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4.7.1 Construction of Sequence Networks |
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153 | (2) |
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155 | (1) |
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4.7.2.1 Delta--Wye or Wye--Delta Transformer |
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155 | (2) |
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4.7.2.2 Wye--Wye Transformer |
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157 | (1) |
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4.7.2.3 Delta--Delta Transformer |
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158 | (1) |
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4.7.2.4 Zigzag Transformer |
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158 | (1) |
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4.7.2.5 Three-Winding Transformers |
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159 | (4) |
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163 | (1) |
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4.7.4 Synchronous Machines |
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163 | (5) |
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4.8 Computer Models of Sequence Networks |
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168 | (5) |
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170 | (1) |
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171 | (2) |
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5 Unsymmetrical Fault Calculations |
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173 | (40) |
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173 | (2) |
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175 | (2) |
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5.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault |
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177 | (2) |
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179 | (1) |
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5.5 Phase Shift in Three-Phase Transformers |
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180 | (6) |
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5.5.1 Transformer Connections |
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180 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Phase Shifts in Winding Connections |
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180 | (3) |
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5.5.3 Phase Shift for Negative Sequence Components |
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183 | (3) |
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5.6 Unsymmetrical Fault Calculations |
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186 | (7) |
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193 | (11) |
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5.7.1 Solidly Grounded Systems |
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195 | (1) |
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5.7.2 Resistance Grounding |
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196 | (1) |
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5.7.2.1 High-Resistance Grounded Systems |
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197 | (6) |
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5.7.2.2 Coefficient of Grounding |
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203 | (1) |
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5.8 Open Conductor Faults |
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204 | (9) |
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5.8.1 Two-Conductor Open Fault |
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204 | (1) |
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204 | (5) |
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209 | (2) |
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211 | (1) |
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211 | (2) |
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6 Matrix Methods for Network Solutions |
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213 | (46) |
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213 | (1) |
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6.2 Bus Admittance Matrix |
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214 | (5) |
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219 | (2) |
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6.3.1 Bus Impedance Matrix from Open-Circuit Testing |
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220 | (1) |
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6.4 Loop Admittance and Impedance Matrices |
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221 | (2) |
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6.4.1 Selection of Loop Equations |
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223 | (1) |
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223 | (3) |
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6.6 Bus Admittance and Impedance Matrices by Graph Approach |
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226 | (7) |
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226 | (2) |
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6.6.2 Incidence Matrix from Graph Concepts |
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228 | (4) |
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6.6.3 Node Elimination in Y-Matrix |
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232 | (1) |
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6.7 Algorithms for Construction of Bus Impedance Matrix |
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233 | (13) |
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6.7.1 Adding a Tree Branch to an Existing Node |
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234 | (2) |
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236 | (2) |
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6.7.3 Removal of an Uncoupled Branch |
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238 | (1) |
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6.7.4 Changing Impedance of an Uncoupled Branch |
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238 | (1) |
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6.7.5 Removal of a Coupled Branch |
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238 | (8) |
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6.8 Short-Circuit Calculations with Bus Impedance Matrix |
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246 | (10) |
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6.8.1 Line-to-Ground Fault |
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246 | (1) |
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246 | (1) |
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6.8.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault |
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247 | (9) |
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6.9 Solution of Large Network Equations |
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256 | (3) |
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257 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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7 Current Interruptions in AC Networks |
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259 | (54) |
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259 | (2) |
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261 | (2) |
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7.2.1 Arc Interruption Theories |
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261 | (1) |
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261 | (1) |
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262 | (1) |
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7.2.1.3 Cassie-Mayr Theory |
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262 | (1) |
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263 | (1) |
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7.4 Transient Recovery Voltage |
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264 | (5) |
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7.4.1 First Pole to Clear Factor |
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266 | (3) |
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269 | (2) |
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7.5.1 Four-Parameter Method |
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269 | (1) |
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7.5.2 Two-Parameter Representation |
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270 | (1) |
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271 | (2) |
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7.7 Interruption of Low Inductive Currents |
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273 | (3) |
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7.7.1 Virtual Current Chopping |
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275 | (1) |
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7.8 Interruption of Capacitance Currents |
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276 | (2) |
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7.9 TRV in Capacitive and Inductive Circuits |
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278 | (1) |
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7.10 Prestrikes in Circuit Breakers |
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279 | (1) |
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7.11 Overvoltages on Energizing HV Lines |
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280 | (8) |
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7.11.1 Overvoltage Control |
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282 | (1) |
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7.11.2 Synchronous Operation |
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283 | (1) |
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7.11.3 Synchronous Capacitor Switching |
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283 | (1) |
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284 | (3) |
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7.11.4.1 Oscillation Modes |
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287 | (1) |
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7.12 Out-of-Phase Closing |
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288 | (1) |
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7.13 Resistance Switching |
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289 | (4) |
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7.14 Failure Modes of Circuit Breakers |
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293 | (2) |
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7.15 Stresses in Circuit Breakers |
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295 | (1) |
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7.16 Classification of Circuit Breakers according to Interrupting Medium |
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295 | (9) |
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7.16.1 SF6 Circuit Breakers |
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296 | (1) |
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7.16.1.1 Electronegativity of SF6 |
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297 | (2) |
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7.16.2 Operating Mechanisms |
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299 | (1) |
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7.16.3 Vacuum Interruption |
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300 | (1) |
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7.16.3.1 Current Chopping and Multiple Ignitions |
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301 | (2) |
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7.16.3.2 Switching of Unloaded Dry-Type Transformers |
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303 | (1) |
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7.17 Part Winding Resonance in Transformers |
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304 | (2) |
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306 | (1) |
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7.18 Solid-State Circuit Breakers |
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306 | (7) |
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308 | (1) |
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309 | (1) |
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310 | (3) |
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8 Application and Ratings of Circuit Breakers and Fuses according to ANSI Standards |
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313 | (58) |
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8.1 Total and Symmetrical Current Basis |
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314 | (2) |
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316 | (1) |
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8.2.1 Contact Parting Time |
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316 | (1) |
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8.3 Voltage Range Factor K |
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317 | (3) |
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8.4 Circuit Breaker Timing Diagram |
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320 | (1) |
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321 | (1) |
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8.6 Permissible Tripping Delay |
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322 | (1) |
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8.7 Service Capability Duty Requirements and Reclosing Capability |
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322 | (4) |
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8.7.1 Transient Stability on Fast Reclosing |
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323 | (3) |
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8.8 Shunt Capacitance Switching |
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326 | (9) |
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8.8.1 Switching of Cables |
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331 | (4) |
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8.9 Line Closing Switching Surge Factor |
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335 | (2) |
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8.9.1 Switching of Transformers |
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336 | (1) |
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8.10 Out-of-Phase Switching Current Rating |
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337 | (1) |
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8.11 Transient Recovery Voltage |
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337 | (16) |
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8.11.1 Circuit Breakers Rated Below 100 kV |
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338 | (1) |
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8.11.2 Circuit Breakers Rated 100 kV and Above |
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338 | (4) |
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342 | (2) |
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344 | (1) |
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8.11.4.1 Exponential (Overdamped) TRV |
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344 | (1) |
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345 | (1) |
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8.11.6 Adopting IEC TRV Profiles in IEEE Standards |
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345 | (5) |
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8.11.7 Definite-Purpose TRV Breakers |
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350 | (1) |
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8.11.8 TRV Calculation Techniques |
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350 | (3) |
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8.12 Generator Circuit Breakers |
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353 | (5) |
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8.13 Specifications of High-Voltage Circuit Breakers |
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358 | (1) |
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8.14 Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers |
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358 | (5) |
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8.14.1 Molded Case Circuit Breakers |
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358 | (1) |
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8.14.2 Insulated Case Circuit Breakers (ICCBs) |
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359 | (1) |
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8.14.3 Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breakers (LVPCBs) |
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359 | (2) |
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8.14.3.1 Single-Pole Interrupting Capability |
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361 | (1) |
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8.14.3.2 Short-Time Ratings |
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361 | (1) |
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8.14.3.3 Series Connected Ratings |
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362 | (1) |
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363 | (8) |
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8.15.1 Current-Limiting Fuses |
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364 | (1) |
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365 | (1) |
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8.15.3 High-Voltage Fuses |
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365 | (1) |
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8.15.4 Interrupting Ratings |
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366 | (1) |
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367 | (1) |
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368 | (3) |
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9 Short Circuit of Synchronous and Induction Machines and Converters |
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371 | (50) |
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9.1 Reactances of a Synchronous Machine |
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372 | (3) |
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9.1.1 Leakage Reactance XI |
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372 | (1) |
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9.1.2 Subtransient Reactance X"d |
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372 | (1) |
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9.1.3 Transient Reactance X'd |
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372 | (1) |
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9.1.4 Synchronous Reactance Xd |
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372 | (1) |
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9.1.5 Quadrature Axis Reactances X"q, X'q, and Xq |
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373 | (1) |
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9.1.6 Negative Sequence Reactance X2 |
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374 | (1) |
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9.1.7 Zero Sequence Reactance X0 |
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374 | (1) |
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9.1.8 Potier Reactance Xp |
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374 | (1) |
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9.2 Saturation of Reactances |
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375 | (1) |
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9.3 Time Constants of Synchronous Machines |
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375 | (1) |
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9.3.1 Open-Circuit Time Constant T'do |
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375 | (1) |
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9.3.2 Subtransient Short-Circuit Time Constant T'd |
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375 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Transient Short-Circuit Time Constant T'd |
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375 | (1) |
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9.3.4 Armature Time Constant Ta |
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375 | (1) |
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9.4 Synchronous Machine Behavior on Short Circuit |
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375 | (11) |
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9.4.1 Equivalent Circuits during Fault |
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380 | (3) |
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9.4.2 Fault Decrement Curve |
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383 | (3) |
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9.5 Circuit Equations of Unit Machines |
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386 | (4) |
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9.6 Park's Transformation |
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390 | (5) |
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9.6.1 Reactance Matrix of a Synchronous Machine |
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390 | (3) |
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9.6.2 Transformation of Reactance Matrix |
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393 | (2) |
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9.7 Park's Voltage Equation |
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395 | (2) |
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9.8 Circuit Model of Synchronous Machines |
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397 | (2) |
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9.9 Calculation Procedure and Examples |
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399 | (9) |
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9.9.1 Manufacturer's Data |
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406 | (2) |
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9.10 Short Circuit of Synchronous Motors and Condensers |
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408 | (1) |
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409 | (4) |
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9.12 Capacitor Contribution to the Short-Circuit Currents |
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413 | (1) |
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9.13 Static Converters Contribution to the Short-Circuit Currents |
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414 | (3) |
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9.14 Practical Short-Circuit Calculations |
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417 | (4) |
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418 | (1) |
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419 | (1) |
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419 | (2) |
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10 Short-Circuit Calculations according to ANSI Standards |
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421 | (58) |
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10.1 Types of Calculations |
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421 | (2) |
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422 | (1) |
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10.1.2 Maximum Peak Current |
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422 | (1) |
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10.2 Accounting for Short-Circuit Current Decay |
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423 | (2) |
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10.2.1 Low-Voltage Motors |
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424 | (1) |
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10.3 Rotating Machine Model |
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425 | (1) |
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10.4 Type and Severity of System Short Circuits |
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426 | (1) |
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427 | (8) |
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10.5.1 Simplified Method X/R ≤ 17 |
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427 | (1) |
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10.5.2 Simplified Method X/R > 17 |
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427 | (1) |
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10.5.3 E/X Method for AC and DC Decrement Adjustments |
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427 | (1) |
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10.5.4 Fault Fed from Remote Sources |
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428 | (2) |
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10.5.5 Fault Fed from Local Sources |
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430 | (5) |
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10.5.6 Weighted Multiplying Factors |
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435 | (1) |
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435 | (2) |
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10.6.1 E/X or E/Z Calculation |
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436 | (1) |
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10.7 Breaker Duty Calculations |
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437 | (1) |
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10.8 Generator Source Asymmetry |
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437 | (2) |
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10.9 Calculation Procedure |
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439 | (5) |
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10.9.1 Necessity of Gathering Accurate Data |
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439 | (1) |
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10.9.2 Calculation Procedure |
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440 | (1) |
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10.9.3 Analytical Calculation Procedure |
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441 | (1) |
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441 | (1) |
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10.9.5 Dynamic Simulation |
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441 | (1) |
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10.9.6 Circuit Breakers with Sources on Either Side |
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441 | (2) |
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10.9.7 Switching Devices without Short-Circuit Interruption Ratings |
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443 | (1) |
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10.9.8 Adjustments for Transformer Taps and Ratios |
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443 | (1) |
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10.10 Examples of Calculations |
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444 | (20) |
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10.10.1 Calculation of Short-Circuit Duties |
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444 | (4) |
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10.10.2 K-Rated 15 kV Breakers |
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448 | (4) |
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10.10.3 4.16 kV Circuit Breakers and Motor Starters |
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452 | (1) |
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10.10.4 Transformer Primary Switches and Fused Switches |
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452 | (1) |
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10.10.5 Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers |
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452 | (1) |
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452 | (3) |
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455 | (1) |
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10.10.8 Overhead Line Conductors |
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456 | (4) |
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10.10.9 Generator Source Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current |
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460 | (1) |
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10.10.10 Generator Source Asymmetrical Current |
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461 | (1) |
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10.10.11 System Source Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current |
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461 | (1) |
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10.10.12 System Source Asymmetrical Short-Circuit Current |
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462 | (1) |
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10.10.13 Required Closing Latching Capabilities |
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462 | (1) |
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10.10.14 Selection of the Generator Breaker |
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463 | (1) |
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10.11 Deriving an Equivalent Impedance |
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464 | (5) |
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10.12 Thirty-Cycle Short-Circuit Currents |
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469 | (1) |
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10.13 Fault Current Limiters |
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470 | (9) |
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10.13.1 Superconducting Fault Current Limiters |
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473 | (1) |
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474 | (3) |
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477 | (2) |
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11 Short-Circuit Calculations according to IEC Standards |
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479 | (42) |
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11.1 Conceptual and Analytical Differences |
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479 | (4) |
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11.1.1 Breaking Capability |
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479 | (1) |
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11.1.2 Rated Restriking Voltage |
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480 | (1) |
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11.1.3 Rated Making Capacity |
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480 | (1) |
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11.1.4 Rated Opening Time and Break Time |
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480 | (1) |
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11.1.5 Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current |
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480 | (1) |
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11.1.6 Peak Making Current |
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481 | (1) |
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481 | (1) |
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11.1.8 Steady-State Current |
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481 | (1) |
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11.1.9 Highest Short-Circuit Currents |
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482 | (1) |
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483 | (1) |
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11.3 Far-From Generator Faults |
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483 | (6) |
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485 | (2) |
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487 | (1) |
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11.3.2.1 Method A: Uniform Ratio R/X or X/R Ratio Method |
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487 | (1) |
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11.3.2.2 Ratio R/X or X/R at the Short-Circuit Location |
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487 | (1) |
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11.3.2.3 Method C: Equivalent Frequency Method |
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488 | (1) |
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11.4 Near-to-Generator Faults |
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489 | (6) |
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11.4.1 Generators Directly Connected to Systems |
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489 | (1) |
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11.4.2 Generators and Unit Transformers of Power Station Units |
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490 | (1) |
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491 | (1) |
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11.4.4 Short-Circuit Currents Fed from One Generator |
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491 | (1) |
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11.4.4.1 Breaking Current |
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491 | (1) |
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11.4.4.2 Steady-State Current |
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492 | (1) |
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11.4.5 Short-Circuit Currents in Nonmeshed Networks |
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493 | (1) |
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11.4.6 Short-Circuit Currents in Meshed Networks |
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494 | (1) |
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495 | (2) |
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11.5.1 Low-Voltage Motor Groups |
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496 | (1) |
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11.5.2 Calculations of Breaking Currents of Asynchronous Motors |
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496 | (1) |
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11.5.3 Static Converter Fed Drives |
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497 | (1) |
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11.6 Comparison with ANSI/IEE Calculation Procedures |
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497 | (2) |
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11.7 Examples of Calculations and Comparison with ANSI Methods |
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499 | (14) |
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11.8 Electromagnetic Transients Program Simulation of a Generator Terminal Short Circuit |
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513 | (8) |
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513 | (4) |
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517 | (2) |
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519 | (2) |
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12 Calculations of Short-Circuit Currents in Direct Current Systems |
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521 | (34) |
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12.1 DC Short-Circuit Current Sources |
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521 | (2) |
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12.2 Calculation Procedures |
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523 | (2) |
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12.2.1 IEC Calculation Procedure |
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523 | (2) |
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525 | (1) |
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12.3 Short-Circuit of a Lead Acid Battery |
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525 | (6) |
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12.4 Short-Circuit of DC Motors and Generators |
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|
531 | (6) |
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12.5 Short-Circuit of a Rectifier |
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537 | (6) |
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12.6 Short-Circuit of a Charged Capacitor |
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543 | (1) |
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12.7 Total Short-Circuit Current |
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544 | (1) |
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545 | (3) |
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548 | (1) |
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12.10 Protection of the Semi-Conductor Devices |
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548 | (2) |
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12.11 High-Voltage DC Circuit Breakers |
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|
550 | (5) |
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|
553 | (1) |
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|
553 | (2) |
Appendix A Matrix Methods |
|
555 | (32) |
Appendix B Sparsity and Optimal Ordering |
|
587 | (8) |
Appendix C Transformers and Reactors |
|
595 | (34) |
Appendix D Solution to the Problems |
|
629 | (80) |
Index |
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709 | |