About the Authors |
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vii | |
Preface |
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xvii | |
List of Abbreviations |
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xix | |
List of Tables |
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xxiii | |
Chapter 1 Introduction |
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1 | (6) |
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1.1 State Aid from the Beginning |
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1 | (1) |
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1.2 State Aid-Good or Bad? |
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2 | (1) |
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1.3 The EU Regulatory Approach |
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3 | (2) |
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1.4 The Analysis and Assessment of 60 Years of EU State Aid Law and Policy |
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5 | (2) |
Chapter 2 State Aid and How the EU System Works |
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7 | (84) |
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2.1 Starting with Coal and Steel |
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7 | (1) |
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2.2 Sectoral Widening from the EEC Treaty to Articles 107 and 108 of the TFEU |
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8 | (1) |
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2.3 Substance and Exemptions |
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9 | (3) |
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2.4 General Procedural Approach |
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12 | (4) |
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2.5 Articles 106 and 109 of the TFEU |
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16 | (6) |
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2.5.1 State Enterprises and Enterprises with Special or Exclusive Rights-Article 106 of the TFEU |
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17 | (4) |
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2.5.2 Rule-Making and Article 109 of the TFEU |
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21 | (1) |
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2.6 A Closer Look at the Notion of Aid |
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22 | (31) |
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2.6.1 Measures Excluded by the Treaty (Test 1) |
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22 | (10) |
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23 | (4) |
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27 | (4) |
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2.6.1.3 Defence and Security |
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31 | (1) |
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2.6.2 By or Through State Resources (Test 2) |
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32 | (5) |
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2.6.3 Providing a Selective Advantage (Test 3) |
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37 | (3) |
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2.6.4 Only if Supporting an Undertaking or an Economic Activity (Test 4) |
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40 | (1) |
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2.6.5 Impact on Competition (Test 5) |
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41 | (8) |
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45 | (4) |
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2.6.6 Effect on Trade (Test 6) |
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49 | (3) |
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2.6.7 Cumulative Application of the Tests |
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52 | (1) |
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2.7 The Application of Exemptions-Article 107(2) and (3) of the TFEU |
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53 | (7) |
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2.7.1 De Jure Exemptions-Article 107(2) of the TFEU |
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53 | (7) |
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2.7.1.1 Aid Having a Social Character-Article 107(2)(a) of the TFEU |
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54 | (1) |
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2.7.1.2 Aid to Address Natural Disasters and Exceptional Occurrences-Article 107(2)(b) of the TFEU |
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55 | (4) |
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2.7.1.3 Aid Concerning the Former Division of Germany-Article 107(2)(c) of the TFEU |
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59 | (1) |
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2.8 Discretionary Exemptions-Article 107(3) of the TFEU |
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60 | (21) |
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2.8.1 Article 107(3)(a) of the TFEU-Seriously Underdeveloped Regions |
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62 | (1) |
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2.8.2 Article 107(3)(b) of the TFEU-Projects of Common European Interest and Aid to Remedy a Serious Disturbance in the Economy |
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63 | (5) |
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2.8.2.1 Projects of Common European Interest |
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64 | (2) |
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2.8.2.2 Aid to Remedy a Serious Disturbance in the Economy |
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66 | (2) |
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2.8.3 Article 107(3)(c) of the TFEU-Assisted Regions, Economic Activities and Sectors |
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68 | (7) |
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2.8.4 Article 107(3)(d) of the TFEU-Aid Supporting Culture and Heritage |
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75 | (5) |
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2.8.5 Article 107(3)(e) of the TFEU-Other Categories of Aid Authorised by the Council on a Proposal from the Commission |
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80 | (1) |
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81 | (3) |
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2.10 What Happens When State Aid Is Illegal? |
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84 | (7) |
Chapter 3 The Evolution of Treaty Rules on State Aid |
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91 | (64) |
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3.1 Christopher Columbus, the Pope and the First Regulation of Subsidies |
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91 | (1) |
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3.2 The Development of the Role of the State and the Emergence of the "Subsidising State" |
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92 | (2) |
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3.3 Modern Regulation-From the Havana Charter to the WTO |
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94 | (2) |
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3.4 Modern Regulation-The Parallel Development of the EU State Aid System |
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96 | (4) |
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3.5 The Curious Case of EURATOM |
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100 | (3) |
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3.6 The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) |
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103 | (2) |
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3.7 The Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Agreement (SCMA) |
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105 | (9) |
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110 | (2) |
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3.7.2 Scope and Procedures |
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112 | (2) |
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3.8 The Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS) Agreement |
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114 | (2) |
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3.9 The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) |
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116 | (5) |
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3.10 Clashes Between the WTO and EU Systems-An Excursus into Boeing and Airbus |
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121 | (3) |
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3.10.1 The 2016 Boeing Decision |
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122 | (2) |
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3.10.2 The 2016 Airbus Decision |
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124 | (1) |
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3.11 The EU and WTO Systems-Comparative Strengths and Weaknesses |
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124 | (3) |
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3.12 The Expansion of the EU System via New Trade and Integration Treaties |
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127 | (28) |
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3.12.1 From the Stockholm Convention to the EEA |
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128 | (2) |
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3.12.2 The Europe Agreements |
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130 | (2) |
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3.12.3 Partnership and Cooperation Agreements with the Countries of the Former Soviet Union |
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132 | (1) |
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3.12.4 Stabilisation and Association Agreements in the Balkans |
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133 | (3) |
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3.12.5 The EUROMED Agreements |
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136 | (1) |
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3.12.6 The Energy Community Treaty and CEFTA |
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137 | (3) |
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3.12.7 The Evolving Model-From National Monitoring to Control |
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140 | (1) |
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3.12.8 The Ukrainian, Georgian and Moldovan Association Agreement Requirements |
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141 | (4) |
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3.12.9 What about CETA, TTIP and BREXIT? |
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145 | (3) |
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3.12.10 The New Eurasian Economic Union |
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148 | (3) |
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3.12.11 The New State Aid Dialogue with China |
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151 | (4) |
Chapter 4 Milestones and Landmark Cases in the Development of State Aid Law and Policy from 1957 to 2017 |
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155 | (74) |
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155 | (1) |
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4.2 Phase 1-1950s-1970s (Slow Progress and the Pursuit of Policy in a Time of Crisis) |
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156 | (12) |
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4.2.1 Main Trends in the Jurisprudence of This Period |
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163 | (5) |
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4.2.1.1 1961-Aid Is Wider than Subsidy |
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163 | (2) |
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4.2.1.2 1964-The Supremacy of European Law |
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165 | (1) |
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4.2.1.3 1969-1977-Selectivity, the "Effects Doctrine," Advantage and State Resources |
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165 | (2) |
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4.2.1.4 1973-1980-Development of Procedures |
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167 | (1) |
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4.3 Phase 2-The 1980s (The Commission Tightens the Rules in a Recession Period) |
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168 | (11) |
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4.3.1 Main Trends in the Jurisprudence of This Period |
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175 | (4) |
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4.3.1.1 1980-Effect on Trade |
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175 | (1) |
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4.3.1.2 1983-1985-State Resources and First Annulments of Commission Decisions |
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176 | (2) |
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4.3.1.3 1986-Court Endorsement of the Market Investor Principle |
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178 | (1) |
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4.4 Phase 3-The 1990s (Rule-Making and New Issues in a Time of Change) |
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179 | (15) |
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4.4.1 SCMA and Europe Agreements |
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183 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Other Developments in Rule-Making |
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184 | (4) |
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4.4.3 Commission Commences Banking Cases |
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188 | (1) |
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4.4.4 Cases Reinforcing Commission Policy on the Notion of Aid |
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189 | (1) |
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4.4.5 Jurisprudence in the 1990s |
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189 | (5) |
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4.5 Phase 4-2000-2017 (The Millennium Era and State Aid Reform) |
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194 | (35) |
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194 | (1) |
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195 | (2) |
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4.5.3 Recovery of Illegal State Aid |
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197 | (1) |
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4.5.4 Pre-2005 Rule-Making |
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198 | (2) |
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200 | (6) |
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200 | (2) |
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202 | (1) |
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4.5.5.3 The Gibraltar Case |
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203 | (1) |
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4.5.5.4 Tax Ruling Investigations |
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204 | (2) |
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4.5.6 Services of General Economic Interest (SGEI) |
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206 | (5) |
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4.5.7 State Aid Action Plan, New Economic Approach and State Aid Modernisation (SAM) Initiative |
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211 | (9) |
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4.5.7.1 Progress of Rule-Making-Especially GBER |
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214 | (5) |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (1) |
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4.5.9 Other Jurisprudence |
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221 | (12) |
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4.5.9.1 The Adria-Wien Pipeline Case (2001) |
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221 | (1) |
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4.5.9.2 Preussen Elektra (2001) |
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222 | (1) |
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4.5.9.3 The Chronopost Case (2003) |
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222 | (1) |
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4.5.9.4 The British Aggregates Association Cases (2006-2012) |
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223 | (1) |
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4.5.9.5 The Lufthansa Case (2013) on the Role of National Courts |
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224 | (1) |
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4.5.9.6 The Irish Travel Tax Case (2016) Concerning Recovery |
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225 | (4) |
Chapter 5 The Process and Progress of State Aid Reforms |
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229 | (24) |
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229 | (1) |
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5.2 The First Phase of Reform 1996-2005 (the "Irish Initiative") |
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230 | (3) |
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5.3 The State Aid Action Plan |
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233 | (10) |
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5.3.1 The New Economic Approach |
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235 | (3) |
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5.3.2 De Minimis Adjustments |
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238 | (1) |
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5.3.3 Increased Monitoring |
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239 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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5.3.5 Further Development of Block Exemptions |
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240 | (3) |
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243 | (1) |
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5.4 The State Aid Modernisation Programme (2012-2016) |
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243 | (10) |
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5.4.1 GBER 2014 in Context |
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246 | (1) |
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247 | (1) |
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5.4.3 The 2016 Notice on the Notion of Aid |
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248 | (5) |
Chapter 6 State Aid Regulation and Other EU Policies |
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253 | (74) |
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253 | (1) |
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6.2 State Aid Law and Policy and EU Policies on Energy, Steel and Environment |
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254 | (27) |
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6.2.1 Aid to the Coal Sector |
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255 | (3) |
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6.2.2 Aid to the Steel Sector |
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258 | (2) |
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6.2.3 Aid for Environmental Protection and Energy |
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260 | (21) |
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6.3 Regional Development and Cohesion |
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281 | (14) |
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6.3.1 The State Aid Dimension of Regional Development and Cohesion Policy |
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283 | (1) |
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6.3.2 The Relevant State Aid Rules |
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284 | (8) |
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6.3.3 State Aid and Structural Funds |
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292 | (3) |
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6.4 Banking Regulation and the Response to the International Financial Crisis |
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295 | (10) |
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6.5 EU Taxation Policy and the Pursuit of State Aid Tax Measures |
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305 | (22) |
Chapter 7 Assessment, Conclusions and Future Directions |
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327 | (54) |
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327 | (1) |
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328 | (13) |
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7.2.1 Politics and Regulation |
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328 | (2) |
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7.2.2 The Erosion of the Sovereignty of National Industrial Policies and the EU State Aid Control Regime |
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330 | (5) |
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7.2.3 The Erosion of the Sovereignty of National Direct Taxation and the EU State Aid Control Regime |
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335 | (3) |
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7.2.4 Political Factors in Decision-Making |
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338 | (3) |
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7.3 The Evolution of Legal Rules |
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341 | (13) |
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7.3.1 Legal Certainty and Definitional Clarity |
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341 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Legal Certainty and the Absence of a State Aid Definition |
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342 | (2) |
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7.3.3 The European Commission&aposs Review of Existing Aids and Legal Certainty |
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344 | (1) |
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7.3.4 Legal Certainty and the Security of Undertakings vis-a-vis the Recovery of Illegal State Aid |
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345 | (1) |
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7.3.5 The Promotion of Legal Certainty via State Aid Reforms |
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346 | (2) |
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7.3.6 Whither Legal Certainty in the EU State Aid Regime? |
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348 | (1) |
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7.3.7 Uniform Application, Enforcement Practice and Deterrent Effect |
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349 | (5) |
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7.4 Economic Issues and Impacts |
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354 | (18) |
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7.4.1 The Economic Rationale for Government Supports to Undertakings |
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354 | (4) |
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7.4.2 The Underdevelopment of Economic Analysis in the Application of State Aid Law and Policy and the Argument for Change |
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358 | (1) |
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7.4.3 The Traditional Economic Approach of the European Commission |
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359 | (3) |
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7.4.4 The Beginnings of the "New Economic Approach" |
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362 | (1) |
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7.4.5 The Development of a More Economic Based Assessment of State Aids |
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363 | (1) |
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7.4.6 Regulation as a Contribution to Competition Nationally and Internationally |
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364 | (3) |
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7.4.7 Regulation as a Contribution to International Trade and Investment |
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367 | (3) |
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7.4.8 The (Mostly Economic) Challenges of Regulation in Transition Economies |
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370 | (2) |
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7.5 Administration of the System |
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372 | (4) |
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7.5.1 Capacity of the European Commission in the EU System to Regulate in Accordance with Substantive Law |
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372 | (4) |
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376 | (3) |
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379 | (2) |
Annexes |
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381 | (24) |
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Annex 1 Main Provisions of EU Law: Articles 106 to 109 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) |
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383 | (4) |
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Annex 2 Extracts from the WTO Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Agreement, 1994 |
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387 | (14) |
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Annex 3 References and Citations |
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401 | (4) |
Bibliography |
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405 | (8) |
Table of European Court Cases |
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413 | (20) |
Table of Legislation |
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433 | (12) |
Index |
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445 | |