E-raamat: Structure and Performance of Cements

List of contributors xii Preface xvi Notation xviii Cement manufacture 1(24) Wiesaw Kurdowski Introduction 1(1) Raw material preparation 2(1) Raw material crushing 2(1) Raw material grinding 3(1) Classifiers 4(1) Homogenization 5(2) Clinker burning 7(6) Coolers 13(3) Cement grinding 16(2) Automation 18(2) Environmental protection 20(3) Acknowledgements 23(1) References 23(2) Composition of cement phases 25(32) Herbert Pollman Introduction 25(2) Simple oxides, elements and their potential role in cement chemistry 27(1) Calcium silicates 27(7) Aluminium silicates, calcium aluminium silicates, their properties and occurrence in cements 34(1) Calcium aluminates 35(3) Calcium aluminium ferrites 38(3) Influence of minor components (alone or in combinations) - alkalies, MgO, SO3, phosphates, fluorides, borates, chlorine, titanium, heavy metals 41(1) Increased MgO content 41(1) Sulphate-containing phases 41(1) Chlorine-containing phases 41(3) Phosphate in cement 44(2) Heavy metals in cement 46(1) Elements used as fluxes (boron and fluorine) 46(4) Quantification of cementitious materials by Rietveld method 50(1) Acknowledgements 51(1) References 51(6) Hydration of Portland cement 57(57) E. M. Gartner J. F. Young D. A. Damidot I. Jawed Introduction 57(1) Hydration of tricalcium silicate 57(21) Hydration of dicalcium silicate 78(3) Hydration of tricalcium aluminate 81(6) Hydration of the ferrite phase 87(2) Hydration of Portland cement 89(11) Microstructure of hardened paste 100(8) Appendix - Glossary of terms 108(1) References 108(6) Calcium aluminate cements 114(26) John Bensted Introduction 114(1) Manufacture 115(1) Phase composition 116(1) Physical properties 117(1) Hydration 118(5) Admixtures 123(1) Blends with other materials 124(2) Low-temperature applications 126(1) High-temperature applications 126(1) Hydrophobic applications 127(1) Durability 127(3) Safe usage of CACs 130(3) Concrete society report in the UK on CACs 133(1) CAC and structures 134(1) Further comments on sulphate resistance 134(2) Thermal analysis methods for assessing CAC conversion 136(1) Further comments 136(1) Conclusion 137(1) Acknowledgements 138(1) References 138(2) Properties of concrete with mineral and chemical admixtures 140(46) S. Chandra Introduction 140(1) Binders 141(1) Interrelation of cement properties to concrete 142(1) Hydration of cementitious materials 143(7) Superplasticizers 150(6) Interfacial transition zones (ITZ) 156(7) Durability properties 163(5) Engineering properties 168(10) Need for development of long-term test methods 178(1) Concluding remarks 179(1) Acknowledgements 180(1) References 180(6) Special cements 186(51) A. K. Chatterjee Introduction 186(1) Prior reviews and past definitions 186(2) Drivers for special cement development 188(1) Construction cements with enhanced durability potential 189(17) Cement formulations with improved engineering properties 206(12) Cementitious products for environmental benefits 218(6) Simultaneous production of energy and cement 224(2) Cements with high energy conservation potential 226(5) Miscellaneous hydraulic and chemical cements 231(1) Conclusion 232(1) References 233(4) Developments with oilwell cements 237(16) John Bensted Introduction 237(1) ISO classes and grades 238(1) Relevant ISO standards 239(1) Brief comments on the ISO cementing standards 239(1) Effects of different conditions 240(1) Some other interesting phenomena with Class G and H cements 241(1) Cementing in hostile environments 242(2) Cements for some given well types 244(2) Alternatives to standard Class G and H cements 246(5) Conclusion 251(1) Acknowledgements 251(1) References 251(2) Gypsum in cements 253(12) John Bensted Introduction 253(1) The calcium sulphate-water system 253(2) The role of gypsum in set regulation of Portland cement-based systems 255(2) Gypsum quality 257(1) By-product gypsums 258(2) Flash set 260(1) False set 260(1) Air set 261(1) Portland cement-calcium aluminate cement compositions 262(1) Calcium sulphoaluminate cements 262(1) Conclusion 263(1) References 263(2) Alkali-silica reaction in concrete 265(17) D. W. Hobbs Introduction 265(1) The reaction 265(1) Mechanism of expansion 266(1) Concretes affected 267(1) Visual and internal cracking induced by ASR 267(2) Pessimum behaviour 269(1) Sources of alkali 270(1) Reactive silica 271(1) Diagnosis of ASR as the cause of visual cracking 272(1) Factors influencing expansion 273(7) Concluding remarks 280(1) References 280(2) Delayed ettringite formation 282(13) C. Famy K. L. Scrivener H. F. W. Taylor Introduction 282(1) DEF in field concretes 282(1) Coarse microstructure of materials damaged by DEF 283(1) Macroscopic properties associated with DEF 283(1) Effect of cement composition 284(1) Cement hydration at 70-100°C 284(2) Chemistry of changes after cooling to ambient temperatures 286(1) Paste microstructure in materials cured at elevated temperature 287(1) Expansion 288(4) Conclusions 292(1) Acknowledgements 293(1) References 293(2) Chloride corrosion in cementitious system 295(15) Wiesaw Kurdowski Introduction 295(1) Chloride ions diffusion in cement paste 295(2) Binding capacity of chloride ions in cement paste 297(1) Factors influencing the diffusion of chloride ions in the cement paste 298(2) Mechanism of cement paste destruction in the chloride medium 300(6) Chloride - induced corrosion of reinforcement in concrete 306(2) References 308(2) Blastfurnace cements 310(16) E. Lang History 310(1) Slag composition and reactivity 310(3) Grindability 313(1) Blastfurnace cement characterization 314(4) Durability 318(5) References 323(3) Properties and applications of natural pozzolanas 326(27) F. Massazza Introduction 326(1) Classification of natural pozzolanas 326(2) Pozzolana-lime mixes 328(7) Pozzolana-containing cements 335(13) Conclusions 348(1) References 348(5) Pulverized fuel ash as a cement extender 353(19) Karen Luke Introduction 353(1) PFA formation 354(1) Characteristics of PFA 355(2) Role of PFA on performance of extended systems 357(12) References 369(3) Metakaolin as a pozzolanic addition to concrete 372(27) Tom R. Jones Introduction 372(1) Structure of metakaolin (mk) 373(1) Pozzolanic reactions of mk 374(4) Effect of mk on the basic properties of PC concrete 378(3) Effect of mk on the properties of uncured concrete 381(4) Effect of mk on the properties of hardened concrete 385(4) Durability of mk concrete 389(4) Metakaolin in engineering concrete 393(2) Acknowledgements 395(1) References 395(4) Condensed silica fume as a cement extender 399(10) H. Justnes Introduction 399(1) Physical effects 399(2) Chemical effects 401(6) Conclusions 407(1) References 407(2) Cement-based composite micro-structures 409(11) Stephen P. Bailey David OConnor Sally L. Colston Paul Barnes Herbert Freimuth Wolfgang Ehrfeld Introduction 409(2) Cement-composite development 411(1) Micro-mould design 412(1) Mould fabrication 412(1) MSCCD applications 413(2) MSCCD production 415(1) Quality of MSCCD features 416(3) Conclusions 419(1) Acknowledgements 419(1) References 419(1) X-ray powder diffraction analysis of cements 420(22) J. C. Taylor L. P. Aldridge C. E. Matulis I. Hinczak Introduction 420(1) X-ray diffraction from cement 421(1) Qualitative analysis of cements 422(1) The method of X-ray diffraction 423(2) Physical factors affecting XRD quantitative analysis 425(2) Choice of radiation in cement XRD studies 427(1) Amorphous (non-diffracting) content 427(2) Background intensity 429(1) Rietveld refinement of OPC XRD patterns 429(3) Refinement strategy for Rietveld XRD assays of cements 432(2) Errors in Rietveld quantifications 434(1) Crystal structure analysis of Portland cement phases by the Rietveld method 434(1) Quantitative analysis of hydrating phases 435(1) Recent Rietveld studies of real cements 436(1) Conclusions 437(1) References 437(5) Electrical monitoring methods in cement science 442(15) W. J. McCarter G. Starrs T. M. Chrisp Introduction 442(1) Immittance formalisms 442(4) Application of electrical measurements 446(7) Concluding remarks 453(1) Acknowledgements 454(1) References 454(3) Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging of cements and cement-based materials 457(20) Jorgen Skibsted Christopher Hall Hans J. Jakobsen Introduction 457(1) Solid-state NMR methods 458(4) Structure and bonding in cement minerals 462(5) Proton relaxation and pore structure 467(2) Other nuclei 469(1) Magnetic resonance imaging 469(3) References 472(5) The use of synchrotron sources in the study of cement materials 477(23) Paul Barnes Sally L. Colston A. C. Jupe S. D. M. Jacques M. Attfield R. Pisula S. Morgan C. Hall P. Livesey S. Lunt Introduction 477(1) The synchrotron 477(2) High quality/resolution powder diffraction 479(3) Single crystal micro-diffraction 482(1) Energy-dispersive powder diffraction 483(11) Extended X-ray absorption fine structure 494(1) X-ray microscopy 495(1) Tomographic energy-dispersive diffraction imaging 495(3) Conclusions 498(1) Acknowledgements 498(1) References 498(2) Electron microscopy of cements 500(57) I. G. Richardson General introduction 500(1) Historical context 500(11) Electron microscopy 511(1) Transmission electron microscopy of cement 511(9) High resolution transmission electron microscopy of cement hydrate phases 520(3) Scanning electron microscopy of cement 523(9) Low-temperature and environmental electron microscopy of cement 532(1) Analytical electron microscopy using X-rays 533(1) Analytical transmission electron microscopy (TEM-EDX/EELS) 534(6) Electron microscopy of cement 540(2) References 542(15) Index 557

P. Barnes and J. Bensted