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E-raamat: Subsurface Upgrading of Heavy Crude Oils and Bitumen

(Chevron Energy Technology Center (ETC),Richmond, California, USA)
  • Formaat: EPUB+DRM
  • Ilmumisaeg: 24-Jul-2019
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781351721080
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Subsurface Upgrading of Heavy Crude Oils and BitumenSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: EPUB+DRM
  • Ilmumisaeg: 24-Jul-2019
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781351721080
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Heavy crude oils and bitumen represent more than 50% of all hydrocarbons available on the planet. These feedstocks have a low amount of distillable material and high level of contaminants that make their production, transportation, and refining difficult and costly by conventional technologies. Subsurface Upgrading of Heavy Crude Oils and Bitumen is of interest to the petroleum industry mainly because of the advantages compared to aboveground counterparts.

The author presents an in-depth account and a critical review of the progress of industry and academia in underground or In-Situ upgrading of heavy, extra-heavy oils and bitumen, as reported in the patent and open literature. This work is aimed to be a standalone monograph, so three chapters are dedicated to the composition of petroleum and fundamentals of crude oil production and refining.

Key Features:















Offers a multidisciplinary scope that will appeal to chemists, geologists, biologists, chemical engineers, and petroleum engineers





Presents the advantages and disadvantages of the technologies considered





Discusses economic and environmental considerations for all the routes evaluated and offers perspectives from experts in the field working with highlighted technologies

Arvustused

"Low API gravity and high viscosity crude oils comprise around 70% of total world oil reserves. Thus, they are very important to meet our constantly growing future energy demand. Dr. Ovalles combines his academic knowledge with his invaluable industry experiences in this book and provides a good guide on how to deal with heavy oil reservoirs. This book will be used as a course book soon to educate future petroleum engineers."

- Berna Hascakir, Professor at Texas A&M University

"As is obvious from the contents in the Chapters and topics that have been covered in this book, Cesar has vast knowledge in all aspects of petroleum industry. Although the focus of the book is on insitu upgrading, the author covers topics from the molecular structure and characterization to transportation and different upgrading technologies. It is timely that Cesar completed this book as the Subsurface upgrading for Heavy oils and bitumen is gaining momentum in Canada. It is expected that this book will be used extensively by process engineers, academics, research labs and should be owned by libraries to be used as a reference book for teaching and learning all aspects of heavy oil and bitumen production and processing."

Parviz Rahimi, Upgrading Solutions Inc. "Low API gravity and high viscosity crude oils comprise around 70% of total world oil reserves. Thus, they are very important to meet our constantly growing future energy demand. Dr. Ovalles combines his academic knowledge with his invaluable industry experiences in this book and provides a good guide on how to deal with heavy oil reservoirs. This book will be used as a course book soon to educate future petroleum engineers."

- Berna Hascakir, Professor at Texas A&M University

"As is obvious from the contents in the Chapters and topics that have been covered in this book, Cesar has vast knowledge in all aspects of petroleum industry. Although the focus of the book is on insitu upgrading, the author covers topics from the molecular structure and characterization to transportation and different upgrading technologies. It is timely that Cesar completed this book as the Subsurface upgrading for Heavy oils and bitumen is gaining momentum in Canada. It is expected that this book will be used extensively by process engineers, academics, research labs and should be owned by libraries to be used as a reference book for teaching and learning all aspects of heavy oil and bitumen production and processing."

Parviz Rahimi, Upgrading Solutions Inc.

Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
About the Author xix
Chapter 1 Introduction 1(18)
1.1 What Are Heavy Crude Oils and Bitumen?
2(2)
1.2 World Reserves of Heavy Crude Oils and Bitumen
4(3)
1.3 What Is Upgrading and Why Upgrade Heavy Oils?
7(2)
1.3.1 Definition and Levels of Upgrading
7(1)
1.3.2 What Is Subsurface Upgrading?
7(1)
1.3.3 The Economics of Upgrading
8(1)
1.4 What Is In- and Out-of-Scope?
9(1)
1.5 Advantages of Subsurface Upgrading
10(1)
1.6 Challenges to Overcome
10(1)
1.7 Upgrading Routes Evaluated in the Literature
11(3)
1.7.1 Physical Separations
13(1)
1.7.2 Thermal Processes
13(1)
1.7.3 Thermal and Catalytic Hydrogen Addition
13(1)
1.7.4 In-Situ Combustion
13(1)
1.7.5 Hybrid and New Concepts
14(1)
1.8 Impact on Surface Facilities
14(1)
1.9 Environmental Concerns
14(1)
References
15(4)
Chapter 2 Heavy Oil Reservoirs and Crude Oil Characterization 19(30)
2.1 General Characteristics of Heavy Oil-Bearing Formations
19(7)
2.1.1 Overall Composition and Biogenesis
20(3)
2.1.2 Aqueous Phase Composition
23(1)
2.1.3 Gas Phase Composition
24(1)
2.1.4 Mineral Formations
24(2)
2.2 Viscosity of Heavy Crude Oils and Bitumen
26(4)
2.2.1 Viscosity Measurements and Effect of Temperature
26(2)
2.2.2 Effects of Diluent and Amount Needed for Transportation
28(2)
2.3 Heavy Crude Oil Composition
30(4)
2.3.1 Elemental Composition
30(1)
2.3.2 Comparison between Upstream vs. Downstream Petroleum Characterization
30(1)
2.3.3 Atmosphere Equivalent Boiling Point (AEBP)
31(1)
2.3.4 Boduszynski's Continuum Model of Petroleum
32(2)
2.4 Relationships between Asphaltenes and Viscosity
34(9)
2.4.1 What Are Asphaltenes?
34(6)
2.4.2 Effect on Viscosity
40(3)
References
43(6)
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Heavy Oil Recovery and Production 49(22)
3.1 Recovery Processes
49(12)
3.1.1 Cold Production
49(1)
3.1.2 Thermal Recovery
50(4)
3.1.2.1 Cyclic Steam Stimulation
50(1)
3.1.2.2 Steamflooding
51(1)
3.1.2.3 Steam Assistance Gravity Drainage
52(2)
3.1.3 Steam and Solvent Co-Injection
54(4)
3.1.3.1 Cyclic Steam Stimulation with Solvent Co-Injection
55(1)
3.1.3.2 Solvent Co-Injection Steamflooding
55(1)
3.1.3.3 Solvent/Steam Assistance Gravity Drainage
56(2)
3.1.4 Solvent-Only Processes
58(1)
3.1.5 In-Situ Combustion
58(3)
3.2 Production Issues
61(6)
3.2.1 Well Issues
61(2)
3.2.1.1 Well Completions
61(1)
3.2.1.2 Artificial Lift
62(1)
3.2.1.3 Sand Management
62(1)
3.2.2 Oil, Water, and Gas Separation
63(1)
3.2.2.1 Use of Diluent and Heat
63(1)
3.2.2.2 Destabilization of Emulsions
64(1)
3.2.3 Transportation
64(7)
3.2.3.1 Using Diluents
64(1)
3.2.3.2 Heated Pipelines
65(1)
3.2.3.3 Use of Emulsions
66(1)
References
67(4)
Chapter 4 Fundamentals of Heavy Oil Upgrading 71(40)
4.1 Carbon Rejection
71(11)
4.1.1 Solvent Deasphalting
72(2)
4.1.2 Thermal Cracking and Visbreaking
74(4)
4.1.2.1 Thermal Cracking Reactions
74(3)
4.1.2.2 Visbreaking Process
77(1)
4.1.3 Coking and Delayed Coking
78(4)
4.1.3.1 Coking Mechanism
79(2)
4.1.3.2 Delayed Coking
81(1)
4.2 Hydrogen Donation
82(19)
4.2.1 Hydrovisbreaking
82(7)
4.2.1.1 Use of Hydrogen Gas
82(1)
4.2.1.2 Use of Hydrogen Donor Solvents
83(3)
4.2.1.3 Mechanism of Hydrovisbreaking
86(1)
4.2.1.4 Use of Water. Aquaconversion
87(2)
4.2.1.5 Use of Methane as Hydrogen Source
89(1)
4.2.2 Catalytic Cracking and Hydrocracking
89(5)
4.2.2.1 Acid Catalysis
90(2)
4.2.2.2 Hydrogenation
92(2)
4.2.2.3 Comparison between Catalytic Cracking and Hydrocracking
94(1)
4.2.3 Hydrotreatment and Hydroprocessing
94(6)
4.2.3.1 Hydrodesulfurization
95(1)
4.2.3.2 Hydrodenitrogenation
96(2)
4.2.3.3 Hydrodemetallization
98(1)
4.2.3.4 Hydrodeoxygenation
98(2)
4.2.3.5 Catalytic Use of Methane
100(1)
4.2.4 Use of Slurry Catalysts and Processes
100(1)
4.3 Stability of Upgraded Products
101(3)
4.3.1 Causes of Instability and Compatibility of Blends
101(1)
4.3.2 How to Measure Asphaltene Stability of Petroleum Products
102(2)
4.3.3 How to Measure Olefins in Petroleum Products
104(1)
4.4 Relationships between Residue Conversion and Asphaltene Stability
104(2)
4.4.1 Thermal Processes
105(1)
4.4.2 Hydrogen Donation Processes
105(1)
References
106(5)
Chapter 5 Physical Separation 111(38)
5.1 Steam Distillation
111(1)
5.2 Physical Simulations of Downhole Solvent Deasphalting
112(16)
5.2.1 PVT and One-Dimensional Experiments
113(11)
5.2.2 Two-Dimensional Experiments: VAPEX
124(2)
5.2.3 Hot Solvent Injection
126(2)
5.3 Simulation of Asphaltene Precipitation
128(4)
5.3.1 Precipitation Models
129(1)
5.3.2 Flocculation Models
130(1)
5.3.3 Deposition Models
130(1)
5.3.4 Permeability Reductions
131(1)
5.3.5 Viscosity Model
132(1)
5.4 Numerical Simulations of Downhole Solvent Deasphalting
132(4)
5.5 Field Tests
136(5)
5.5.1 VAPEX
136(2)
5.5.2 Cyclic Propane Injection
138(1)
5.5.3 NSOLV Technology
139(2)
5.6 Asphaltene Precipitants
141(2)
References
143(6)
Chapter 6 Thermal Conversion 149(20)
6.1 Low-Temperature Cracking and Mild Visbreaking
149(9)
6.1.1 Low Severity Thermal Conversion
149(5)
6.1.2 Numerical Simulations of Downhole Mild Visbreaking
154(3)
6.1.3 Acid-Catalyzed Cracking
157(1)
6.2 Downhole Medium Visbreaking or Pyrolysis
158(3)
6.3 Shell's Technology and Field Tests
161(5)
6.3.1 Description and Fundamentals
161(1)
6.3.2 Mahogany Field Test and Demonstration Projects
162(3)
6.3.3 Viking Heavy Oil Pilot
165(1)
6.3.4 Grosmont Heavy Oil Pilot
166(1)
6.3.5 Jordan Field Experiment
166(1)
References
166(3)
Chapter 7 Thermal Hydrogen Addition 169(38)
7.1 Use of Hydrogen and Hydrogen Precursors
169(6)
7.1.1 Use of Hydrogen Gas
169(4)
7.1.2 Use of Hydrogen Precursors
173(2)
7.2 Thermal Aquathermolysis
175(12)
7.2.1 Upgrading During Steam Injection
176(6)
7.2.2 Effect of Mineral Formation
182(1)
7.2.3 Kinetics and Mechanism
183(2)
7.2.4 Numerical Simulations
185(2)
7.3 Use of Hydrogen Donor Solvents
187(10)
7.3.1 Use of Naphtheno-Aromatic Compounds
188(4)
7.3.2 Effect of Mineral Formation
192(2)
7.3.3 Effect of Methane
194(1)
7.3.4 Numerical Simulations
195(2)
7.4 Use of Refinery Fractions as Hydrogen Donors
197(5)
References
202(5)
Chapter 8 Catalytic Hydrogen Addition 207(48)
8.1 Catalyst Issues
207(3)
8.1.1 Initial Considerations
207(1)
8.1.2 Placement of the Catalyst Downhole
208(1)
8.1.3 Catalyst Control and Residence Times
209(1)
8.1.4 Environmental Concerns
209(1)
8.2 Catalytic Aquathermolysis
210(20)
8.2.1 Water-Soluble Catalysts
210(8)
8.2.2 Oil-Soluble Catalysts
218(3)
8.2.3 Amphiphilic Catalysts
221(4)
8.2.4 Dispersed and Nanocatalysts
225(5)
8.3 Catalytic Use of Hydrogen Gas
230(11)
8.3.1 Early Experiments
231(3)
8.3.2 University of Calgary Process
234(6)
8.3.2.1 Description of the Process
234(2)
8.3.2.2 Catalyst and Flow Through the Porous Media
236(1)
8.3.2.3 Physical and Numerical Simulations
237(3)
8.3.3 Other Lab Experiments
240(1)
8.4 Catalytic Use of Hydrogen Donors
241(5)
8.4.1 Physical Simulations
241(4)
8.4.2 HDS Mechanistic Studies
245(1)
8.5 Field Tests
246(3)
8.5.1 Liaohe Oilfield
246(2)
8.5.1.1 Use of Water-Soluble Catalyst
246(2)
8.5.1.2 Use of Oil-Soluble Mo-Catalyst
248(1)
8.5.2 Henan Oilfield Using Sulfonic Fe-Catalyst
248(1)
8.5.3 Xinjiang Oilfield using Sulfonic Cu-Catalyst
249(1)
References
249(6)
Chapter 9 In-Situ Combustion 255(24)
9.1 General Mechanism of In-Situ Combustion
255(2)
9.2 Upgrading during Lab and Field Tests
257(3)
9.3 Use of Metal-Containing Heterogeneous Catalysts
260(5)
9.3.1 Addition of Soluble Metal Compounds
260(2)
9.3.2 Use of Heterogeneous Catalysts
262(3)
9.4 Toe-to-Heel Air Injection Process (THAI)
265(10)
9.4.1 Lab Results of THAI
266(2)
9.4.2 Catalytic Upgrading Process In-Situ (CAPRI)
268(2)
9.4.3 Field and Semi-Commercial Tests
270(2)
9.4.3.1 Whitesands Experimental Pilot
270(1)
9.4.3.2 Semi-Commercial Project at Kerrobert
271(1)
9.4.3.3 Outside Canada
272(1)
9.4.4 Further Work in CAPRI
272(7)
9.4.4.1 Other Sources of Hydrogen
272(2)
9.4.4.2 Effect of Catalysts Type
274(1)
References
275(4)
Chapter 10 New Concepts and Future Trends 279(16)
10.1 Use of Electromagnetic Energy
279(5)
10.1.1 Physical and Numerical Simulations
280(1)
10.1.2 Concepts for Downhole Heating
281(2)
10.1.3 Field Tests
283(1)
10.2 ESEIEH™ Field Test
284(2)
10.2.1 Phase 1: Proof of Concept
285(1)
10.2.2 Phase 2: Small-Scale Pilot at Suncor Dover
286(1)
10.2.3 Phase 3: Continuance of the Small-Scale Pilot
286(1)
10.3 Sonication
286(3)
10.4 Key Success Factors, Risks, and Challenges
289(2)
10.4.1 Physical Separations
290(1)
10.4.2 Thermal Processes
290(1)
10.4.3 Hydrogen Addition
290(1)
10.4.4 In-Situ Combustion
291(1)
10.5 Concluding Remarks
291(1)
References
292(3)
Glossary 295(4)
Index 299
Cesar Ovalles graduated with a Licentiate degree in Chemistry from Simon Bolivar University

and a Ph.D. in Chemistry from Texas A&M University. Right after graduation, he worked for 16

years at Petroleos de Venezuela Sociedad Anonima-Instituto de Tecnologia Venezolano del Petroleo

(PDVSAINTEVEP). In 2006, he joined Chevron and is currently Technical Team Leader of the

Heavy Oil Characterization group. He is involved in the areas of petroleum chemistry, heavy and

extra heavy crude oil upgrading (surface and subsurface), and asphaltene characterization. After his

28 years of industrial experience, Dr. Ovalles has published 62 papers in peer-reviewed scientific

journals, 4 books, has been awarded 18 patents, and presented 116 papers at scientific and technical

conferences. Additionally, he has published 14 articles in Venezuelan journals and 92 Technical

Reports for an outstanding number of 306 total scientific productions. Cesar has also served as

Associate Editor of Revista de la Sociedad Venezolana de Catalisis from 1996 to 2000 and Vision

Tecnologica (Technical Journal of PDVSAINTEVEP) from 2000 to 2002. In 2014, he won the

Outstanding Technical Achievement Award from Hispanic Engineer National Achievement Awards

Conference and the National STAR-Hispanic in Technology-Corporate Award from the Society of

Hispanic Professional Engineers. Cesar is married to his college sweetheart, Luisa (Lulu), and is the

father of two grown children. His son, Cesar Arturo, is a computer science graduate currently working

for Safeway Supermarkets and his daughter, Manuela, is a microbiologist working for Mission

Bio, a start-up company in South San Francisco.
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