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E-raamat: Theoretical and Experimental Aerodynamics

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  • Ilmumisaeg: 15-Dec-2018
  • Kirjastus: Springer Verlag, Singapore
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9789811316784
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Theoretical and Experimental AerodynamicsSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: EPUB+DRM
  • Ilmumisaeg: 15-Dec-2018
  • Kirjastus: Springer Verlag, Singapore
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9789811316784
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This book is intended as a text for undergraduate and graduate courses in aerodynamics, typically offered to students of aerospace and mechanical engineering programs. It covers all aspects of aerodynamics. The book begins with a description of the standard atmosphere and basic concepts, then moves on to cover the equations and mathematical models used to describe and characterize flow fields, as well as their thermodynamic aspects and applications. Specific emphasis is placed on the relation between concepts and their use in aircraft design. Additional topics of interest to the reader are presented in the Appendix, which draws on the teachings provided in the text. The book is written in an easy to understand manner, with pedagogical aids such as chapter overviews, summaries, and descriptive and objective questions to help students evaluate their progress. Atmospheric and gas tables are provided to facilitate problem solving. Lastly, a detailed bibliography is included at the end of each chapter to provide students with further resources. The book can also be used as a text for professional development courses in aerodynamics.

Part I Theoretical Aerodynamics
1 The Standard Atmosphere
3(24)
1.1 Introduction
3(1)
1.1.1 Role of Atmosphere in the Aerodynamics
4(1)
1.2 Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere
4(3)
1.2.1 Primary Layers in the Atmosphere
4(2)
1.2.2 Secondary Layers in the Atmosphere
6(1)
1.3 Interpretation of the Altitude
7(1)
1.4 Variation of Pressure in the Standard Atmosphere
7(1)
1.5 Relation Between Geopotential and Geometric Altitude
8(1)
1.6 Distribution of Properties in Troposphere and Stratosphere
8(2)
1.7 Physical and Optical Properties of the Atmosphere
10(2)
1.7.1 Pressure
10(1)
1.7.2 Temperature
10(1)
1.7.3 Mass and Density
10(1)
1.7.4 Scattering Phenomena
10(1)
1.7.5 Absorption and Emission
11(1)
1.7.6 Refractive Index
11(1)
1.8 Static Stability Analysis of Troposphere Layer
12(2)
1.9 Definition of Wind
14(2)
1.9.1 Cyclones and Anticyclones in Temperate Zones
16(1)
1.9.2 Hurricanes or Typhoons in Tropics
16(1)
1.10 Geostrophic and Ageostrophic Winds
16(3)
1.11 Ekman Spiral
19(1)
1.12 Global and Local Winds
19(3)
1.12.1 Land and Sea Breeze
19(1)
1.12.2 Zonal Wind Directions
20(1)
1.12.3 Some Specific Names of the Wind
20(1)
1.12.4 Measuring the Winds
21(1)
Summary
22(2)
Exercises
24(3)
2 Basic Concepts
27(30)
2.1 Aerodynamics: An Overview
27(1)
2.2 The Aircraft
27(2)
2.2.1 Aerodynamic Forces
28(1)
2.2.2 Aerodynamic Moments
29(1)
2.3 Parametric Studies in Aerodynamics
29(5)
2.3.1 Pressure
30(1)
2.3.2 Density
31(1)
2.3.3 Temperature
31(1)
2.3.4 Flow Velocity
31(1)
2.3.5 Stress
31(2)
2.3.6 Coefficient of Viscosity
33(1)
2.4 The Airfoil
34(7)
2.4.1 Nomenclature of an Airfoil and the Wing
34(1)
2.4.2 Pressure Distribution Around an Airfoil
35(2)
2.4.3 Generation of Forces and Moments
37(2)
2.4.4 Center of Pressure
39(1)
2.4.5 The Aerodynamic Center
40(1)
2.5 Dimensional Analysis
41(3)
2.5.1 Concept of Flow Similarity
43(1)
2.6 Types of Flows
44(5)
2.6.1 Continuum and Non-continuum Flows
44(2)
2.6.2 Steady and Unsteady Flows
46(1)
2.6.3 Uniform and Nonuniform Flows
46(1)
2.6.4 Incompressible and Compressible Flows
47(1)
2.6.5 Inviscid and Viscous Flows
48(1)
2.6.6 Mach Number Flow Regimes
48(1)
2.7 Hodograph Transformation
49(3)
Summary
52(2)
Exercises
54(3)
3 Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
57(50)
3.1 Introduction
57(1)
3.2 Review of Vector Relations
57(6)
3.2.1 Scalar (or Dot) Product
57(1)
3.2.2 Vector (or Cross) Product
58(1)
3.2.3 Orthogonal Coordinate Axes
58(1)
3.2.4 Scalar and Vector Fields
59(1)
3.2.5 Scalar Product of Two Vectors
60(1)
3.2.6 Vector Product of Two Vectors
60(1)
3.2.7 Gradient of a Scalar
60(1)
3.2.8 Divergence of a Vector
61(1)
3.2.9 Curl of a Vector
61(1)
3.2.10 Line Integral
62(1)
3.2.11 Surface Integral
62(1)
3.2.12 Volume Integral
63(1)
3.2.13 Stokes Curl Theorem
63(1)
3.2.14 Gauss Divergence Theorem
63(1)
3.2.15 Gradient Theorem
63(1)
3.3 Eulerian and Lagrangian Viewpoints
63(1)
3.3.1 Local and Material Derivatives
63(1)
3.4 Primary and Auxiliary Laws for Continuous Media
64(1)
3.5 Flow Analysis Techniques
65(1)
3.5.1 Finite Control Mass Approach
65(1)
3.5.2 Finite Control Volume Approach
65(1)
3.5.3 Infinitesimal Fluid Element Approach
65(1)
3.5.4 Microscopic Approach
65(1)
3.6 Integral and Differential Analysis
65(1)
3.7 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
66(1)
3.8 The Continuity Equation
66(2)
3.8.1 Some Important Observations
67(1)
3.9 Graphical Representation of Fluid Flows
68(2)
3.9.1 Timelines
68(1)
3.9.2 Streamlines
68(2)
3.9.3 Pathlines
70(1)
3.9.4 Streaklines
70(1)
3.10 Angular Velocity, Vorticity, and the Shear Strain Rate
70(3)
3.11 The Navier-Stokes Equation
73(6)
3.11.1 The Euler Equation
77(1)
3.11.2 Velocity-Vorticity Form of the Navier-Stokes Equation
77(1)
3.11.3 The Crocco's Theorem
78(1)
3.12 Rotational Flows and the Circulation
79(1)
3.13 Irrotational Flows and the Potential Function
79(1)
3.14 Stream Function and the Concept of Vector Potential
80(4)
3.14.1 Concept of Streamline in Three Dimensions
82(1)
3.14.2 Axisymmetric Flows
83(1)
3.14.3 Physical Interpretation of Lagrange Stream Function
83(1)
3.15 The Cauchy-Riemann Equations
84(1)
3.16 The Bernoulli's Equation
85(7)
3.16.1 Steady Bernoulli's Equation
86(5)
3.16.2 Unsteady Bernoulli's Equation
91(1)
3.17 Using the Bernoulli's Equation
92(3)
3.17.1 Airspeed Measurement Using Pitot-Static Probe
92(1)
3.17.2 Pressure Coefficient and the Compressibility Correction Factor
92(2)
3.17.3 The Airspeed
94(1)
3.18 Reynolds Transport Theorem
95(4)
3.18.1 Physical Significance of RTT
99(1)
3.19 The Energy Equation
99(2)
Summary
101(3)
Exercises
104(3)
4 Potential Flow Theory
107(20)
4.1 Introduction
107(1)
4.2 Potential Flows and the Laplace's Equation
107(1)
4.3 Standard Solutions of the Potential Flow
108(7)
4.3.1 Uniform Potential Flow
109(1)
4.3.2 Line Source (or Line Sink)
110(2)
4.3.3 Source-Sink Combination and the Doublet Potential
112(2)
4.3.4 Line Vortex
114(1)
4.4 Superposition of Standard Solutions
115(8)
4.4.1 A Source in the Uniform Flow (Axisymmetric Flow over a Semi-infinite Body)
115(2)
4.4.2 A Pair of Source and Sink in the Uniform Flow (Axisymmetric Flow over a Closed Body)
117(1)
4.4.3 A Doublet in the Uniform Flow (Flow over a Circular Cylinder Without Circulation)
117(2)
4.4.4 A Point Vortex in the Uniform Flow
119(1)
4.4.5 A Doublet and a Vortex Flow in the Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Circular Cylinder with Circulation)
119(4)
4.5 Implications of Kutta-Joukowski Theorem in the Lift Generation
123(1)
Summary
123(1)
Exercises
124(3)
5 Thin Airfoil Theory
127(18)
5.1 Introduction
127(1)
5.2 Circulation and Vorticity
127(1)
5.3 The Kutta Condition
128(1)
5.4 Kelvin's Circulation Theorem
129(3)
5.4.1 The Starting Vortex
131(1)
5.5 Summary of the Lift Generation Mechanism by the Airfoil
132(1)
5.6 Classical Thin Airfoil Theory
132(9)
5.6.1 Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Thin Symmetric Airfoil
135(3)
5.6.2 Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Thin Cambered Airfoil
138(3)
Summary
141(2)
Exercises
143(2)
6 Finite Wing Theory
145(24)
6.1 Introduction
145(3)
6.1.1 Relation Between Trailing Edge Vortices and Spanwise Load Distribution
148(1)
6.2 Concept of Vortex
148(2)
6.2.1 Forced Vortex
148(1)
6.2.2 Free Vortex
149(1)
6.2.3 Vortex Line, Vortex Tube, and the Vortex Filament
149(1)
6.3 Helmholtz's Theorems of Vortex Motion
150(1)
6.3.1 Helmholtz First Theorem
150(1)
6.3.2 Helmholtz Second Theorem
150(1)
6.3.3 Helmholtz Third Theorem
151(1)
6.3.4 Helmholtz Fourth Theorem
151(1)
6.4 Biot and Savart Law of Vortex Motion
151(4)
6.4.1 Application of Biot and Savart Law: Velocity Induced by a Straight Vortex Filament
154(1)
6.5 Vortex System and the Evolution of Prandtl's Lifting Line Theory
155(10)
6.5.1 Lanchester-Prandtl Wing Theory
158(3)
6.5.2 Symmetric Elliptical Aerodynamic Load Distribution
161(2)
6.5.3 Symmetric General Aerodynamic Load Distribution
163(2)
Summary
165(2)
Exercises
167(1)
References
168(1)
7 Panel Methods
169(12)
7.1 Introduction
169(1)
7.2 Hess and Smith Method
169(5)
7.2.1 Line Source Distribution
172(1)
7.2.2 Perturbation Velocity Components Due to Source Distribution
173(1)
7.3 Vortex Panel Methods
174(3)
7.3.1 Panel of Constant Strength
174(2)
7.3.2 Panel with Linearly Varied Vortex Strength
176(1)
7.3.3 Transformation of Panel Coordinates
177(1)
Summary
177(1)
Exercises
178(3)
8 Thermodynamics of Fluids in Motion
181(18)
8.1 Introduction
181(1)
8.1.1 Concept of System, Surroundings, and the Universe
181(1)
8.2 Internal Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics
181(4)
8.2.1 Concept of Work
183(1)
8.2.2 Concept of Enthalpy
183(1)
8.2.3 Different Forms of the First Law for an Adiabatic Flow
184(1)
8.2.4 Concept of Specific Heats
184(1)
8.2.5 Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity
185(1)
8.3 Energy Equation for an Open System
185(1)
8.4 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
186(2)
8.4.1 Thermodynamic Efficiency and Clausius Inequality
186(2)
8.5 Combined Forms of the First Law and the Second Law
188(1)
8.6 Maxwell's Thermodynamic Relations
189(1)
8.6.1 Internal Energy
189(1)
8.6.2 Enthalpy
189(1)
8.6.3 Helmholtz Free Energy
189(1)
8.6.4 Gibbs Free Energy
190(1)
8.7 Effects of Fluid Compressibility on Specific Heats
190(2)
8.8 Thermal and Calorical Properties
192(1)
8.8.1 Thermally Perfect Gas
192(1)
8.8.2 Mayer's Relation
193(1)
8.9 The Perfect Gas
193(1)
8.9.1 Ratio of Specific Heats
193(1)
8.9.2 Limitation of Air as a Perfect Gas
193(1)
Summary
194(1)
Exercises
195(4)
9 Compressible Flows
199(38)
9.1 Introduction to Elastic and Inviscid Compressible Flows
199(1)
9.1.1 One-Dimensional Flow Approximation
199(1)
9.2 Governing Equations of Compressible Flows
199(2)
9.3 Effects of Acoustic Speed on the Fluid Compressibility
201(3)
9.3.1 Speed of Sound
201(1)
9.3.2 Speed of Sound in a Perfect Gas
202(1)
9.3.3 Effect of Molecular Weight on the Acoustic Speed
202(1)
9.3.4 Concept of Mach Number
203(1)
9.3.5 The Mach Angle
203(1)
9.3.6 Classification of Flow Regimes Based on the Mach Number
204(1)
9.4 One-Dimensional, Steady, and Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas
204(9)
9.4.1 Stagnation (or Total) Properties in an Isentropic Flow
205(1)
9.4.2 The Dimensionless Velocity (M*)
206(1)
9.4.3 Effect of Area Variation on Compressible Flow (Area-Velocity Relation)
207(1)
9.4.4 Mass Flow Rate (in)
208(1)
9.4.5 Mass Flow Rate in a Choked Streamtube
209(1)
9.4.6 Physical Interpretation of Flow at the Throat
210(1)
9.4.7 Area Ratio for the Convergent-Divergent Streamtube
210(1)
9.4.8 Types of Characteristic Speeds along a Streamtube
211(1)
9.4.9 Mass Flow Rate Variation with Pressure
212(1)
9.5 The Adiabatic Flow Ellipse
213(1)
9.6 Processes Causing a Change of State in Compressible Flows
214(1)
9.6.1 Fanno Curve
215(1)
9.6.2 Rayleigh Curve
215(1)
9.6.3 Normal Shock Wave
215(1)
9.7 One-Dimensional Flow Across a Normal Shock
215(6)
9.7.1 Governing Equations of the Normal Shock
216(1)
9.7.2 Normal Shock Equations for a Perfect Gas
216(1)
9.7.3 Working Relations for Normal Shock Wave
217(2)
9.7.4 The Prandtl-Meyer Relation
219(2)
9.7.5 The Rankine-Hugoniot Relation
221(1)
9.8 Supersonic Pitot Probe
221(1)
9.8.1 Rayleigh Supersonic Pitot Probe Formula
222(1)
9.9 Convergent-Divergent Nozzle (de Laval Nozzle)
222(4)
9.10 Two-Dimensional Flow Across an Oblique Shock Wave
226(4)
9.10.1 Governing Equations of the Oblique Shock
226(2)
9.10.2 Minimum and Maximum Wave Angles
228(1)
9.10.3 theta - β - M Relation
228(1)
9.10.4 Weak Oblique Shocks
229(1)
9.10.5 Isentropic Compression in Supersonic Flow by Turning
230(1)
9.11 The Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Fan
230(3)
9.11.1 Isentropic Expansion in Supersonic Flow by Turning
232(1)
Summary
233(1)
Exercises
234(2)
References
236(1)
10 Hypersonic Flows
237(14)
10.1 Introduction
237(3)
10.1.1 Shock Layer
237(1)
10.1.2 Entropy Layer
238(1)
10.1.3 Viscous-Inviscid Flow Interaction
238(2)
10.2 Oblique Shock Relations in Hypersonic Flow
240(2)
10.3 Mach Number Independence
242(1)
10.4 Expansion Wave Relations in Hypersonic Flow
242(1)
10.5 Hypersonic Similarity
243(1)
10.6 Newtonian Theory
244(3)
10.6.1 Lift and Drag Coefficients for a Flat Plate at an Angle of Attack
245(2)
10.6.2 Modified Newtonian Theory
247(1)
Summary
247(1)
Exercises
248(2)
References
250(1)
11 Boundary Layers
251(34)
11.1 Introduction
251(1)
11.2 Boundary Layer Thickness
251(3)
11.2.1 Displacement Thickness
251(1)
11.2.2 Momentum Thickness
252(1)
11.2.3 Kinetic Energy Thickness
253(1)
11.3 Similarity Parameters
254(1)
11.4 Boundary Layer Separation
254(3)
11.4.1 Physics of Separation Bubbles in Boundary Layers
256(1)
11.5 Boundary Layer Equations
257(3)
11.5.1 Continuity Equation
258(1)
11.5.2 x-Momentum Equation
259(1)
11.5.3 y-Momentum Equation
259(1)
11.6 von Karman Momentum Integral Equation
260(2)
11.7 K. Wieghardt Energy Integral Equation
262(1)
11.8 Laminar Boundary Layers
263(7)
11.8.1 Incompressible Laminar Flow over a Flat Plate (Blasius Solution)
263(3)
11.8.2 Compressible Laminar Flow over a Flat Plate
266(1)
11.8.3 Stagnation Point Flow (or Hiemenz Flow)
267(2)
11.8.4 Mixing of Two Uniform Laminar Flows
269(1)
11.9 Application of von Karman Momentum Integral Equation
270(1)
11.9.1 Karman-Pohlhausen Approximate Solution Method
270(1)
11.10 Laminar-Turbulent Transition
271(1)
11.11 Turbulent Boundary Layers
272(8)
11.11.1 Mean Motion and Perturbations
272(2)
11.11.2 Governing Equations for Turbulent Flows
274(1)
11.11.3 Prandtl's Mixing Length Hypothesis
275(2)
11.11.4 Regimes in Turbulent Boundary Layer
277(1)
11.11.5 Skin Friction Coefficient for Turbulent Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate
278(2)
Summary
280(2)
Exercises
282(3)
12 Wind Tunnels
285(36)
12.1 Introduction
285(1)
12.2 Types of Wind Tunnels
285(2)
12.2.1 Mach Number Regimes
285(1)
12.2.2 Tunnel Design
285(1)
12.2.3 Operational Fluid
286(1)
12.2.4 Special Purpose
286(1)
12.3 Experimental Models and Similitude
287(1)
12.3.1 Geometric Similarity
287(1)
12.3.2 Kinematic Similarity
287(1)
12.3.3 Dynamic Similarity
287(1)
12.4 Subsonic Wind Tunnels
287(9)
12.4.1 Effuser or Contraction Cone
287(3)
12.4.2 Test Section
290(1)
12.4.3 Subsonic Wind Tunnel Diffuser
290(3)
12.4.4 Driving Unit
293(1)
12.4.5 Losses in Subsonic Wind Tunnels
293(2)
12.4.6 Energy Ratio of a Subsonic Wind Tunnel
295(1)
12.5 High-Speed Wind Tunnels
296(13)
12.5.1 Intermittent-Blowdown Wind Tunnels
296(1)
12.5.2 Intermittent-Indraft Wind Tunnels
297(1)
12.5.3 Continuous Supersonic Wind Tunnels
297(2)
12.5.4 Losses in Supersonic Wind Tunnels
299(1)
12.5.5 Supersonic Wind Tunnel Components
299(10)
12.6 Hypersonic Wind Tunnels
309(1)
12.7 Special Purpose Tunnels
309(2)
12.7.1 Shock Tube
309(2)
12.7.2 Gun Tunnel(or Shock Tunnel)
311(1)
12.7.3 Ludwieg Tube
311(1)
12.7.4 Plasma Wind Tunnel
311(1)
Summary
311(4)
Exercises
315(2)
References
317(4)
Part II Applied Aerodynamics
13 Supersonic Jets
321(40)
13.1 Introduction
321(1)
13.2 Free Turbulence Theories
322(6)
13.2.1 Semi-Empirical Theories
323(4)
13.2.2 Turbulence Models
327(1)
13.3 Computational Techniques for Studying the Jets
328(12)
13.3.1 Preliminary Studies
328(1)
13.3.2 Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
329(1)
13.3.3 Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
330(2)
13.3.4 Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
332(4)
13.3.5 Some Specific Computational Studies on the Jets
336(4)
13.4 Experimental Techniques for Studying the Jets
340(4)
13.4.1 Pressure Measurements
340(4)
13.4.2 Optical Flow Visualization
344(1)
13.5 Aerodynamic Mixing Enhancement and Jet Controls
344(3)
13.5.1 Classification of Jet Controls
346(1)
13.6 Acoustics
347(3)
13.6.1 Pressure Mode Acoustics
347(1)
13.6.2 Vorticity Mode Acoustics
348(1)
13.6.3 Entropy Mode Acoustics
349(1)
13.7 Jet Noise
350(4)
13.7.1 Subsonic Jet Noise
350(1)
13.7.2 Supersonic Jet Noise
350(4)
Summary
354(2)
Exercises
356(2)
References
358(3)
14 Shock Wave and Boundary Layer Interactions
361(32)
14.1 Introduction
361(1)
14.1.1 Transonic Interactions
361(1)
14.2 Supersonic Flow Field Characteristics
362(4)
14.2.1 Simple Wave and Non-simple Region
362(1)
14.2.2 Reflection of an Oblique Shock Wave from a Solid Wall
362(1)
14.2.3 Reflection of an Oblique Shock Wave from a Free Pressure Boundary
362(1)
14.2.4 Oblique Shock Wave Cancelation
362(2)
14.2.5 Interference of Shock and Expansion Waves
364(1)
14.2.6 Shock-Shock Interference
364(1)
14.2.7 Types of Shock-Shock Interference (Edney Classification)
365(1)
14.3 The SBLIs Phenomena
366(3)
14.4 The Oswatitsch Relation
369(1)
14.5 Some Important Studies on SBLIs
370(3)
14.6 SBLIs Control
373(3)
14.6.1 Classification of Control Techniques
373(3)
14.7 Experimental Techniques for Studying the SBLIs
376(1)
14.8 Evaluation of Effectiveness of Some Specific Passive Controls
376(9)
14.8.1 SBLI Control Using Cavity Covered with Porous Surface
377(4)
14.8.2 SBLI Control Using Ramped-Vane Micro-Vortex Generators
381(4)
Summary
385(4)
Exercises
389(1)
References
390(3)
Appendix A: Supplemental Readings 393(14)
Appendix B: The Uncertainty Analysis 407(4)
Appendix C: The Standard Atmosphere 411(20)
Appendix D: Isentropic Table (γ = 1.4) 431(6)
Appendix E: Multiple Choice Questions in Aerospace Engineering 437(68)
Appendix F: Letter of Acknowledgment 505(2)
Index 507
Dr. Mrinal Kaushik is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Aerospace Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, India. He completed his Ph.D., M.Tech. and B.Tech. degrees, all in Aerospace Engineering, at the IIT Kanpur, India. He has also worked at many reputed organizations, including the Defence Research and Development Organization; Indian Space Research Organization; General Motors Tech Center; and Tata Consultancy Services. His primary area of expertise is experimental supersonic aerodynamics, with a current focus on Shock-Boundary Layer Controlled Interactions and Active and Passive Control of Jets & Base Flows. His other research includes experimental investigations on Aerothermodynamics of Hypersonic Flows and Hydrodynamics of Hydrofoils. He has published a large number of research articles in many reputed international journals. He has authored two other books: Essentials of Aircraft Armaments (First Edition, Springer, 2016); and Innovative Passive Control Techniques for Supersonic Jet Mixing (Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany, 2012). He is the recipient of a Young Researcher Award from Venus International Foundation (2015). Dr. Kaushiks biography was included in the prestigious database Marquis Whos Who World in 2016. 
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