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E-raamat: Trace Fossils as Indicators of Sedimentary Environments

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Edited by Richard G. Bromley (Geological Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark), Edited by Dirk Knaust (Statoil ASA, Stavanger, Norway)

Formaat: EPUB+DRM
Sari: Developments in Sedimentology
Ilmumisaeg: 31-Dec-2012
Kirjastus: Elsevier Science Ltd
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9780444538147

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Formaat: EPUB+DRM
Sari: Developments in Sedimentology
Ilmumisaeg: 31-Dec-2012
Kirjastus: Elsevier Science Ltd
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9780444538147

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Integration of ichnological information into sedimentological models, and vice versa, is one of the main means by which we can improve our understanding of ancient depositional environments. Mainly intended for sedimentologists, this book aims to make ichnological methods as part of facies interpretation more popular, providing an analytical review of the ichnology of all major depositional environments and the use of ichnology in biostratigraphic and sequence stratigraphic analysis.

It starts with an introduction to the historical aspect of ichnology, introducing common concepts and methods, and then continues with parts treating the main depositional systems from continental, shallow-marine and deep-marine siliciclastics, and marine carbonates. The last part is dedicated to the ichnology in hydrocarbon reservoir and aquifer characterization.

First overview in 25 years of the status of ichnological studies in facies reconstructions of all major depositional environments

Written by a selected, well-experienced and specialized international authorship

Provides easy access to the comprehensive and widespread literature

Arvustused

"the volume is a must-read for all ichnologists, but not only for them. Specialists in sedimentology, basin analysis, sequence stratigraphy, palaeogeography (sensu lato), and palaeontology will find it enriching. With regard to its very rich content and academic style, I recommend this book as an advanced reading to professionals and students with some good knowledge about trace fossils." --Geologos, 2013

"he should be congratulated on managing to get more than 80 authors to contribute. He should also be congratulated on the diversity of topics the book addresses. Although the title makes clear its primary aim, Trace Fossils As Indicators of Sedimentary Environments explores a number of other ichnological fields too." --The Palaeontology Newsletter, 2013

"Altogether, this very interesting book, recommended for specialists and non-specialists in ichnology who undertake or approach basin analysis research This is the culmination of intense work by Dirk Knaust and Richard Bromley, and I congratulate both for their courage and for the quality of this integral volume." --Palaeontologia Electronica online, July 2013

"This volume is a must-read for all ichnologists, but not only for them. Specialists in sedimentology, basin analysis, sequence stratigraphy, paleogeography (sensu lato), and paleontology will find it enriching. With regard to its very rich content and academic style, I recommend it as an advanced reading to professionals." --Sedimentary Record, August 2013

Muu info

A comprehensive overview of how trace fossils can be employed in interpreting sedimentary environments

Contents

vii

Contributors

xxi

Preface

xxvii

Part I History, Concepts, and Methods

1 A History of Ideas in Ichnology

(42)

Andrea Baucon

Emese Bordy

Titus Brustur

Luis A. Buatois

Tyron Cunningham

Chirananda De

Christoffer Duffin

Fabrizio Felletti

Christian Gaillard

Bin Hu

Lei Hu

Soren Jensen

Dirk Knaust

Martin Lockley

Pat Lowe

Adrienne Mayor

Eduardo Mayoral

Radek Mikulas

Giovanni Muttoni

Carlos Neto de Carvalho

S. George Pemberton

John Pollard

Andrew K. Rindsberg

Ana Santos

Koji Seike

Hui-bo Song

Susan Turner

Alfred Uchman

Yuan-yuan Wang

Gong Yi-ming

Lu Zhang

Wen-tao Zhang

1 Introduction

(1)

2 The Ages of Ichnology

(1)

3 From Paleolithic Times to Greco-Roman Antiquity

(2)

4 The Age of Naturalists

(2)

5 Seventeenth to Eighteenth Century: A Period of Transition

(2)

6 The Age of Fucoids

(5)

6.1 Emergence of the Paleobotanical Interpretation

(2)

6.2 Zoophytes and other Popular Interpretations

(1)

6.3 An Independent Ichnological Center: North America

(1)

6.4 The Rise of Vertebrate Ichnology

(1)

7 Period of Reaction

(3)

7.1 Fucoids versus Traces

(1)

7.2 The Period of Reaction: a Worldwide Phenomenon

(2)

8 Development of the Modern Approach

(4)

8.1 Decline of Ichnology

(3)

8.2 The Senckenberg Marine Institute

(1)

9 Modern Era

(9)

9.1 The Ethological Revolution

(2)

9.2 Early Modern Era: A New Impetus for the Study of Traces

(1)

9.3 The Golden Age of North American Ichnology

(2)

9.4 The Eastern Bloc During the Early Modern Era

(1)

9.5 Global Ichnology

(3)

10 Conclusions and Discussion

(4)

10.1 Evolution of the Interpretation of Trace Fossils

(1)

10.2 Modern Centers of Ichnological Research

(1)

10.3 Modern Trends in Ichnology as a Legacy from the Past

(1)

10.4 Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Aspects in Ichnology

(1)

10.5 Ichnology as a Historical Product

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(9)

2 Ichnotaxonomy: Finding Patterns in a Welter of Information

(34)

Andrew K. Rindsberg

1 Introduction

(1)

2 Observing Trace Fossils

(1)

3 Describing Trace Fossils

(1)

4 Stratinomic Classifications

(4)

4.1 Substrate Consistency

(1)

4.2 Toponomic Classification

(3)

5 Biological Classifications

(2)

5.1 Phylogenetic Classification

(1)

5.2 Ecological Classifications

(1)

6 Ethological Classification

(9)

6.1 Resting Traces (Cubichnia)

(2)

6.2 Dwelling Traces (Domichnia)

(2)

6.3 Locomotion Traces (Repichnia)

(1)

6.4 Grazing Traces (Pascichnia)

(1)

6.5 Feeding Traces (Fodinichnia)

(1)

6.6 Farming Traces (Agrichnia)

(1)

6.7 Escape Traces (Fugichnia)

(1)

6.8 Brooding Traces (Calichnia)

(1)

6.9 Other Ethological Categories

(1)

6.10 Overlapping Functions

(1)

7 Systematic Classification

(11)

7.1 International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

(1)

7.2 A Brief History of Ichnotaxonomy

(2)

7.3 The Mechanics of Naming New Ichnospecies and Ichnogenera

(3)

7.4 Diagnosis and Description

(2)

7.5 Ichnofamilies and higher Ichnotaxa

(1)

7.6 Ichnosubspecies and other Subdivisions

(1)

7.7 Exceptional Cases

(1)

7.8 Beyond Systematics

(1)

8 Conclusions

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(6)

3 Trace-Fossil Systematics

(24)

Dirk Knaust

1 Introduction

(1)

2 Need of a Robust Ichnotaxonomy and Trace-Fossil Classification

(3)

3 A Newly Proposed Nomenclature Key

(12)

3.1 Purpose and Advantages

(1)

3.2 Structure of the Key and Challenges

(11)

3.3 Data Analysis

(1)

4 Way Forward

(1)

5 Conclusions

(1)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(6)

4 The Ichnofacies Paradigm

103

(36)

James A. MacEachern

Kerrie L. Bann

Murray K. Gingras

John-Paul Zonneveld

Shahin E. Dashtgard

S. George Pemberton

1 Introduction

103

(10)

1.1 Rise of the Ichnofacies Concept

103

(2)

1.2 Variation in the Use of Ichnofacies

105

(8)

2 Neoichnological Underpinning of Seilacherian Ichnofacies

113

(4)

3 The Seilacherian Ichnofacies

117

(9)

4 The Role of Seilacherian Ichnofacies

126

(2)

5 Conclusions

128

(2)

Acknowledgments

130

(1)

References

130

(9)

5 The Ichnofabric Concept

139

(18)

Allan A. Ekdale

Richard G. Bromley

Dirk Knaust

1 Introduction

139

(1)

2 Early Development of the Concept

139

(5)

3 A Controversial Concept?

144

(1)

4 Importance of Ichnofabric

145

(6)

5 Conclusions

151

(1)

Acknowledgments

151

(1)

References

152

(5)

6 Sequence Stratigraphy

157

(38)

James A. MacEachern

Shahin E. Dashtgard

Dirk Knaust

Octavian Catuneanu

Kerrie L. Bann

S. George Pemberton

1 Introduction

157

(8)

1.1 Nomenclature, Key Bounding Surfaces, and Systems Tracts

158

(2)

1.2 Recognition of Trace-Fossil Omission Suites

160

(1)

1.3 Autogenic versus Allogenic Discontinuities

161

(3)

1.4 Facies and Ichnofacies Juxtaposition

164

(1)

2 Overview of Sequence-Stratigraphic Frameworks

165

(4)

2.1 Siliciclastic Responses to RSL Changes

165

(2)

2.2 Carbonate Responses to RSL Changes

167

(2)

3 Ichnological Applications to Sequence Stratigraphy (Case Studies)

169

(17)

3.1 Incised Shorefaces, Viking Formation, Alberta, Canada

169

(8)

3.2 Estuarine Incised-Valley Fill, Viking Formation, Alberta, Canada

177

(6)

3.3 Carbonate Platform, Khuff Formation, Middle East

183

(3)

4 Conclusions

186

(1)

Acknowledgments

187

(1)

References

187

(8)

7 Ichnostratigraphy

195

(18)

M. Gabriela Mangano

Luis A. Buatois

Robert B. MacNaughton

1 Introduction

195

(1)

2 Continental Environments

196

(3)

3 Marginal-Marine Environments

199

(2)

4 Shallow-Marine Environments

201

(5)

4.1 Proterozoic/Cambrian Boundary

201

(1)

4.2 Cruziana Stratigraphy

202

(3)

4.3 Arthrophycid Stratigraphy

205

(1)

5 Deep-Marine Environments

206

(2)

6 Conclusions

208

(1)

Acknowledgments

208

(1)

References

208

(5)

8 Microbioerosion

213

(32)

Max Wisshak

1 Introduction

213

(1)

2 The Methodological Toolkit

214

(4)

2.1 Thin Sectioning

214

(1)

2.2 Vacuum Cast-Embedding

215

(2)

2.3 Micro-CT

217

(1)

3 Microbioeroding Biota and their Traces

218

(6)

3.1 Cyanobacteria

218

(1)

3.2 Chlorophytes and Rhodophytes

219

(2)

3.3 Fungi

221

(1)

3.4 Other Chemotrophs

221

(3)

4 Paleoenvironmental Signatures

224

(13)

4.1 Paleobathymetry

224

(2)

4.2 Paleothermometry

226

(4)

4.3 Paleosalinity

230

(5)

4.4 Paleotrophodynamics

235

(2)

5 Conclusions

237

(1)

Acknowledgments

238

(1)

References

238

(7)

9 Methodology and Techniques

245

(28)

Dirk Knaust

1 Introduction

245

(1)

2 Field Techniques

246

(4)

2.1 Outcrop Observations

246

(1)

2.2 Peels, Molds, and Casts

246

(2)

2.3 Core Sampling of Surface Sediment

248

(1)

2.4 Imaging and Analysis of Dinosaur, Bird, and Mammal Tracks

248

(1)

2.5 Building Stones

249

(1)

2.6 Quantification of Bioturbation

249

(1)

3 Laboratory Techniques

250

(6)

3.1 Sectioning and Enhancement of Visibility

250

(2)

3.2 Thin Sectioning

252

(1)

3.3 Optical Microscopy

253

(1)

3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy

254

(1)

3.5 X-ray Radiography

255

(1)

3.6 Computer-Aided Tomography

255

(1)

3.7 Polymer-Resin Casting

256

(1)

4 Borehole Cores and Images

256

(4)

4.1 Well Cores

256

(2)

4.2 Borehole Images

258

(2)

5 Statistical Analysis

260

(1)

6 Computer Modeling

260

(3)

7 Conclusions

263

(1)

Acknowledgment

264

(1)

References

264

(9)

10 Marine Invertebrate Neoichnology

273

(26)

Shahin E. Dashtgard

Murray K. Gingras

1 Introduction

273

(1)

2 Major Infaunal Groups and their Common Traces

274

(11)

2.1 Vermiform Animals: Annelids, Hemichordates, and Nemerteans

274

(3)

2.2 Bivalves

277

(3)

2.3 Crustaceans

280

(3)

2.4 Echinoderms

283

(2)

2.5 Sponges and Sea Anemones

285

(1)

3 Environmental Stresses and their Impact of Neoichnology

285

(4)

4 Summary and Conclusions

289

(1)

Acknowledgments

290

(1)

References

290

(9)

Part II Continental and Glacial Systems

11 Glacial Environments

299

(30)

Renata G. Netto

Jacob S. Benner

Luis A. Buatois

Alfred Uchman

M. Gabriela Mangano

Jack C. Ridge

Vaidotas Kazakauskas

Algirdas Gaigalas

1 Introduction

299

(1)

2 Ecological and Environmental Constraints in Glacial Settings

300

(5)

2.1 Environmental Stress in Glacial Settings

300

(2)

2.2 Postglacial Colonization of Terrestrial Environments

302

(1)

2.3 Postglacial Colonization of Freshwater Environments

303

(1)

2.4 Glacial and Postglacial Colonization of Marine Environments

304

(1)

3 Trace-Fossil Assemblages from Ancient Glacial Environments

305

(14)

3.1 Bioturbated Deposits in Glacial Settings

305

(1)

3.2 Glaciolacustrine Trace-Fossil Assemblages

306

(6)

3.3 Ichnocoenoses and Ichnofacies of Glaciolacustrine Rhythmites

312

(5)

3.4 Glaciomarine Trace-Fossil Assemblages

317

(1)

3.5 Ichnocoenoses and Ichnofacies of Glaciomarine Rhythmites

318

(1)

4 Ichnology of Recent Glacial Environments

319

(1)

5 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives

320

(1)

Acknowledgments

321

(1)

References

321

(8)

12 Fluvial Environments

329

(50)

Ricardo N. Melchor

Jorge F. Genise

Luis A. Buatois

Aldo M. Umazano

1 Introduction

329

(1)

2 Approach

330

(5)

3 Ichnofacies

335

(17)

3.1 Scoyenia Ichnofacies

337

(1)

3.2 Coprinisphaera Ichnofacies

337

(8)

3.3 Celliforma Ichnofacies

345

(1)

3.4 Termitichnus Ichnofacies

345

(1)

3.5 Mermia Ichnofacies

346

(1)

3.6 Skolithos Ichnofacies

347

(1)

3.7 Grallator Ichnofacies

348

(1)

3.8 Batrachichnus Ichnofacies

348

(2)

3.9 Additional Vertebrate Ichnofacies

350

(1)

3.10 Potential Ichnofacies from Paleosols

351

(1)

4 Application of Ichnofacies and Ichnofabrics to the Interpretation of Fluvial Sedimentary Facies

352

(4)

4.1 Composite Ichnofacies

353

(1)

4.2 Stratigraphical Applications

354

(2)

4.3 Ichnofabric Studies of Fluvial Successions

356

(1)

5 Depositional Environments

356

(12)

5.1 Comparison of Channel-Bell and Floodplain Trace-Fossil Assemblages

356

(5)

5.2 Contrasting Trace-Fossil Preservation in Channel-Belt and Overbank Facies

361

(2)

5.3 Trace Fossils in Channel-Belt Deposits

363

(2)

5.4 Floodplain Subenvironments

365

(2)

5.5 Comparison of Trace-Fossil Assemblages from Different River Systems

367

(1)

6 Conclusions

368

(3)

Acknowledgments

371

(1)

References

371

(8)

13 Lacustrine Environments

379

(40)

Jennifer J. Scott

Luis A. Buatois

M. Gabriela Mangano

1 Introduction

379

(6)

2 Ichnology

385

(10)

2.1 Biogenic Activity and Structures in Lake Basins

385

(4)

2.2 The Ichnofacies Model in Lake Basins

389

(6)

3 An Integrated Lake-Type Basin and Lacustrine Ichnology Model

395

(13)

3.1 Overfilled Lake-Type Basins

396

(4)

3.2 Balanced-Fill Lake-Type Basins

400

(3)

3.3 Underfilled Lake-Type Basins

403

(5)

4 Conclusions

408

(1)

Acknowledgments

409

(1)

References

409

(10)

14 Eolian Environments

419

(22)

Allan A. Ekdale

Richard G. Bromley

1 introduction

419

(1)

2 Ichnofacies

419

(3)

2.1 Ichnology in Eolian Environments

419

(1)

2.2 Ichnofacies in Eolian Paleoenvironments

420

(2)

3 Depositional Environments

422

(8)

3.1 Trace Fossils in Coastal Dunes

422

(3)

3.2 Trace Fossils in Inland Ergs

425

(3)

3.3 Uniformitarian Approach to Eolian Ichnofacies

428

(1)

3.4 Paleoclimatic Significance of Eolian Ichnofacies

429

(1)

4 Ichnofabrics

430

(2)

5 Conclusions

432

(1)

Acknowledgments

433

(1)

References

434

(7)

Part III Shallow-Marine Siliciclastic Systems

15 Rocky Shorelines

441

(22)

Jordi M. de Gibert

Rosa Domenech

Jordi Martinell

1 Introduction

441

(1)

2 Modern Rocky-Shore Habitats and Inhabitants

441

(6)

2.1 Rocky-Shore Habitats

441

(1)

2.2 Rocky-Shore Inhabitants

442

(3)

2.3 Preservation Potential of Rocky-Shore Biota in the Fossil Record

445

(2)

3 Main Bioerosion Ichnotaxa

447

(4)

3.1 Bivalve Borings

447

(1)

3.2 Sponge Borings

447

(2)

3.3 Worm Borings

449

(1)

3.4 Echinoid Borings

449

(1)

3.5 Cirripede Borings

449

(2)

4 Trace-Fossil Assemblages and Ichnofacies

451

(2)

4.1 Substrate Influence on Rocky-Shore Assemblages

451

(1)

4.2 Evolution of Rocky-Shore Bioerosion

451

(1)

4.3 Rocky-Shore Ichnofacies

452

(1)

5 Case Studies

453

(2)

5.1 Early Devonian, Ontario

453

(1)

5.2 Middle Jurassic, England

454

(1)

5.3 Miocene, Spain

455

(1)

6 Conclusions

455

(2)

Acknowledgments

457

(1)

References

457

(6)

16 Estuaries

463

(44)

Murray K. Gingras

James A. MacEachern

Shahin E. Dashtgard

John-Paul Zonneveld

Jesse Schoengut

Michael J. Ranger

S. George Pemberton

1 Introduction

463

(3)

2 The Ichnological Identification of Estuaries

466

(9)

2.1 Brackish-Water Trace-Fossil Assemblages

467

(4)

2.2 Tides and Trace Fossils

471

(2)

2.3 Ichnological Evidence for Transgressive Incised Valley Fills

473

(2)

3 Trace Distributions within Wave- and Tide-Dominated Estuaries

475

(13)

3.1 Wave-Dominated Estuaries

476

(1)

3.2 Wave-Dominated Estuary Case Study: Kouchibouguac Bay, New Brunswick, Canada

477

(1)

3.3 Mixed-Energy Estuaries

478

(2)

3.4 Mixed-Energy Example: Willapa Bay, Washington, USA

480

(3)

3.5 Mixed-Energy Example: Ogeechee River Estuary, Georgia, USA

483

(1)

3.6 Tide-Dominated Estuaries

484

(1)

3.7 Tide-Dominated Example: Chignecto Bay, Bay of Fundy, Atlantic Canada

485

(3)

4 Ancient Examples---Trace-Fossil Distribution

488

(7)

4.1 Wave-Dominated Estuaries in the Viking Formation (Albian), Alberta, Canada

488

(3)

4.2 Mixed(?) Estuary, Montney Formation (Triassic), Alberta, Canada

491

(1)

4.3 Tide-Dominated(?) Estuary, McMurray Formation (Aptian to Albian), Alberta, Canada

492

(3)

5 Discussion

495

(2)

6 Conclusions

497

(1)

Acknowledgments

497

(1)

References

498

(9)

17 Deltas

507

(22)

Nicola S. Tonkin

1 Introduction

507

(1)

2 Classification of Deltaic Systems

508

(2)

2.1 Bioturbation Intensity and Ichnodiversity

509

(1)

2.2 Ichnofabric and Ichnofacies Analysis

510

(1)

3 Common Deltaic Trace Fossils

510

(2)

4 Controls on Deltaic Ichnology

512

(8)

4.1 Hydrodynamic Energy and Response of Bioturbatore

512

(4)

4.2 Salinity and Salinity Tolerance of Tracemakers

516

(1)

4.3 Sedimentation Rate and the Colonization Window

517

(2)

4.4 Oxygenation

519

(1)

4.5 Substrate Consistency and Benthic Colonization Style

520

(1)

4.6 Turbidity, Light, and Temperature

520

(1)

5 Ichnology of Deltaic End Members

520

(2)

5.1 Fluvial-Dominated Deltaic Ichnology

521

(1)

5.2 Tide-Dominated Deltaic Ichnology

521

(1)

5.3 Wave-Dominated Deltaic Ichnology

522

(1)

6 Conclusions

522

(1)

References

523

(6)

18 Tidal Flats and Subtidal Sand Bodies

529

(34)

Patricio R. Desjardins

Luis A. Buatois

M. Gabriela Mangano

1 Introduction

529

(2)

2 Supratidal and Intertidal Environments

531

(10)

2.1 Supratidal Marshes and Mangroves

534

(1)

2.2 Mud Flats

535

(1)

2.3 Mixed Flats

536

(2)

2.4 Sand Flats

538

(2)

2.5 Tidal Channels and Creeks

540

(1)

3 Subtidal Environments

541

(11)

3.1 Compound Dune Fields

542

(2)

3.2 Sand Sheets

544

(3)

3.3 Tidal Sand Ridges

547

(3)

3.4 Isolated Dune Patches

550

(1)

3.5 Tidal Bars

550

(2)

4 Ichnofacies Trends

552

(1)

5 Sequence Stratigraphy

553

(2)

6 Conclusions

555

(1)

Acknowledgments

555

(1)

References

555

(8)

19 Shorefaces

563

(44)

S. George Pemberton

James A. MacEachern

Shahin E. Dashtgard

Kerrie L. Bann

Murray K. Gingras

John-Paul Zonneveld

1 Introduction

563

(4)

2 Shoreface Subenvironments

567

(16)

2.1 Offshore Complex

567

(5)

2.2 Lower-Middle Shoreface Complex

572

(5)

2.3 Upper Shoreface-Foreshore-Backshore Complex

577

(6)

3 Shoreface Variability

583

(3)

4 Tidal Effects on the Shoreface

586

(6)

5 Summary

592

(4)

Acknowledgments

596

(1)

References

597

(10)

Part IV Deep-Marine Siliciclastic Systems

20 Slopes

607

(36)

Stephen M. Hubbard

James A. MacEachern

Kerrie L. Bann

1 Introduction

607

(2)

2 The Distribution of Infauna on Slopes: Insights from Modern Basin Margins

609

(1)

3 Ichnofacies in Bathyal Settings

610

(9)

3.1 Zoophycos Ichnofacies

611

(4)

3.2 Skolithos Ichnofacies

615

(1)

3.3 Glossifungites Ichnofacies

615

(1)

3.4 Cruziana Ichnofacies

616

(2)

3.5 Nereites Ichnofacies

618

(1)

4 Slope Depositional Environments---Case Studies

619

(15)

4.1 Submarine Canyon Fill, Early Miocene Tirikohua Formation, Northland, New Zealand

619

(2)

4.2 Slope Deposits, Middle Eocene Ainsa-Jaca Basin, Spain

621

(1)

4.3 Ambient Slope Deposits, Cretaceous Nise Formation, Norwegian Shelf

622

(4)

4.4 Slope Minibasin Deposits, Cretaceous Tres Pasos Formation, Chile

626

(2)

4.5 Lower-Slope Channel Deposits, Cretaceous Tres Pasos Formation, Chile

628

(1)

4.6 Levee Deposits, Nanaimo Group, Gulf Islands, British Columbia

629

(5)

5 Discussion and Conclusions

634

(2)

Acknowledgments

636

(1)

References

636

(7)

21 Deep-Sea Fans

643

(30)

Alfred Uchman

Andreas Wetzel

1 Introduction

643

(1)

2 Classification of Deep-Sea Trace Fossils

643

(2)

3 Pre-Depositional Trace Fossils

645

(2)

4 Post-Depositional Trace Fossils

647

(2)

5 Ichnofacies

649

(3)

6 Trace-Fossil Assemblages

652

(1)

7 Ichnofabrics

653

(5)

8 Ichnology of Carbonate Turbidites

658

(1)

9 Trace Fossils as Indicators of Ecological and Physical Sedimentary Parameters

659

(1)

10 Cyclicity and Sequence Stratigraphy Aspects

660

(1)

11 Evolutionary Aspects

660

(3)

12 Perspectives and Conclusions

663

(1)

Acknowledgments

664

(1)

References

664

(9)

22 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Basin Plains

673

(32)

Andreas Wetzel

Alfred Uchman

1 Introduction

673

(1)

2 Ichnology

674

(9)

2.1 Aspects Regarding the Bioturbated Zone

674

(2)

2.2 Bioturbational Structures

676

(3)

2.3 Systematic Ichnology

679

(4)

3 Depositional Environments and Trace Fossils

683

(11)

3.1 Sediment Types

685

(1)

3.2 Sediment Consistency

685

(1)

3.3 Hemipelagic and Pelagic Sediments

686

(6)

3.4 Settings Affected by Bottom Currents

692

(2)

4 Conclusions and Perspectives

694

(1)

Acknowledgments

694

(1)

References

694

(11)

Part V Marine Carbonate Systems

23 Shallow-Marine Carbonates

705

(46)

Dirk Knaust

H. Allen Curran

Andrei V. Dronov

1 Introduction

705

(1)

2 Ichnological Characteristics of Shallow-Marine Carbonate Systems

706

(5)

2.1 The Composition and Distribution of Benthic Organisms

706

(1)

2.2 Sediment Types

707

(3)

2.3 Early Diagenesis

710

(1)

3 Ichnofacies

711

(4)

3.1 Psilonichnus Ichnofacies (Frey and Pemberton, 1987)

712

(1)

3.2 Skolithos Ichnofacies (Seilacher, 1967)

712

(1)

3.3 Cruziana Ichnofacies (Seilacher, 1967)

713

(1)

3.4 Glossifungites Ichnofacies (Seilacher, 1967)

713

(1)

3.5 Trypanites Ichnofacies (Frey and Seilacher, 1980)

714

(1)

4 Case Studies

715

(12)

4.1 Ordovician Cool-Water Carbonates: St. Petersburg Region, Russia

715

(7)

4.2 Triassic Epicontinental Carbonates: Germany

722

(5)

5 Neoichnological Approaches

727

(14)

5.1 Rimmed Carbonate Platforms: Quaternary of the Bahamas

727

(7)

5.2 Homoclinal Carbonate Ramp: Quaternary of the Southern Arabian Gulf

734

(5)

5.3 Holocene Along the Mussafah Channel near Abu Dhabi

739

(2)

6 Conclusions

741

(1)

Acknowledgments

742

(1)

References

743

(8)

24 Reefs and Mounds

751

(26)

Leif Tapanila

Pat Hutchings

1 Introduction

751

(1)

2 Traces and Tracemakers of the Reef

752

(8)

2.1 Macroborings and Bioclaustrations

752

(5)

2.2 The Grazers

757

(3)

3 Reef Ichnology through Time

760

(4)

3.1 Fossil Reefs

760

(3)

3.2 Modern Reef Synthesis

763

(1)

4 Environmental Controls on Bioerosion

764

(4)

5 Conclusions

768

(1)

Acknowledgments

769

(1)

References

769

(8)

25 Chalk and Related Deep-Marine Carbonates

777

(30)

Charles E. Savrda

1 Introduction

777

(6)

2 Zoophycos Ichnofacies

783

(8)

2.1 Environments and Substrates

783

(1)

2.2 Common Ichnofabric Traits

783

(2)

2.3 Ichnocoenoses and Ichnofabrics

785

(4)

2.4 Factors Affecting the Expression of Trace Fossils

789

(2)

3 Cruziana Ichnofacies

791

(2)

3.1 Environments and Substrates

791

(1)

3.2 Ichnocoenoses and Ichnofabrics

791

(2)

3.3 Factors Affecting the Expression of Trace Fossils

793

(1)

4 Glossifungites Ichnofacies

793

(4)

4.1 Environments and Substrates

793

(2)

4.2 Ichnocoenoses and Ichnofabrics

795

(2)

4.3 Factors Affecting the Expression of Trace Fossils

797

(1)

5 Trypanites Ichnofacies

797

(1)

5.1 Environments and Substrates

797

(1)

5.2 Ichnocoenoses and Ichnofabrics

798

(1)

5.3 Factors Affecting the Expression of Trace Fossils

798

(1)

6 Trace Fossils in Remobilized Substrates

798

(3)

6.1 Ichnofabrics of Slump, Ooze-Flow, and Debris-Flow Deposits

798

(2)

6.2 Calciturbidites and the Nereites and Arenicolites Ichnofacies

800

(1)

7 Summary

801

(1)

Acknowledgments

802

(1)

References

802

(5)

26 Mixed Siliciclastic/Carbonate Systems

807

(30)

John-Paul Zonneveld

Murray K. Gingras

Tyler W. Beatty

David J. Bottjer

James R. Chaplin

Sarah E. Greene

Rowan C. Martindale

Scott A. Mata

Luke P. McHugh

S. George Pemberton

Jesse A. Schoengut

1 Introduction

807

(2)

2 Spatial Variability (Lateral Fades Mixing)

809

(6)

2.1 Montney Formation (Early Triassic), Alberta

810

(1)

2.2 Moenkopi Formation (Early Triassic), Nevada and Utah

811

(2)

2.3 Liard Formation (Middle Triassic), British Columbia

813

(1)

2.4 Baldonnel Formation (Late Triassic), British Columbia

814

(1)

3 Temporal Variability (Stratigraphic Mixing)

815

(8)

3.1 Chase Group (Early Permian), Oklahoma

815

(3)

3.2 Schei Point Group (Late Triassic), Sverdrup Basin

818

(2)

3.3 Baldonnel Formation (Late Triassic), British Columbia

820

(1)

3.4 Green River and Wasatch Formations (Eocene), Wyoming

820

(3)

4 Shell Debris in Clastic Successions

823

(5)

4.1 Influence by Infaunal Taxa

823

(2)

4.2 Influence on Infaunal Taxa

825

(2)

4.3 Infaunal Exclusion by Living Taxa (with Dendraster excentricus as an Example)

827

(1)

5 Summary

828

(1)

Acknowledgments

829

(1)

References

829

(8)

Part VI Ichnology in Hydrocarbon-Reservoir and Aquifer Characterization

27 Porosity and Permeability in Bioturbated Sediments

837

(32)

Murray K. Gingras

Greg Baniak

John Gordon

Jussi Hovikoski

Kurt O. Konhauser

Andrew La Croix

Ryan Lemiski

Carl Mendoza

S. George Pemberton

Camilo Polo

John-Paul Zonneveld

1 Introduction

837

(1)

2 The Nature of Ichnological Permeability

838

(4)

3 Framework for Assessing Burrow-Associated Permeability

842

(3)

3.1 Permeability Contrast

843

(1)

3.2 Bioturbation Intensity and Connectivity

844

(1)

3.3 Burrow-Surface Area and Trace Architecture

845

(1)

4 Analytical Methods

845

(19)

4.1 Permeability Assessment: Spot Permeametry

845

(1)

4.2 Trace-Fossil Architecture and Distributions

846

(1)

4.3 Mechanisms and Styles of Burrow Permeability

847

(17)

5 Conclusions

864

(1)

Acknowledgments

865

(1)

References

865

(4)

28 Carbonate Aquifers

869

(28)

Kevin J. Cunningham

Michael C. Sukop

H. Allen Curran

1 Introduction

869

(2)

2 Methods

871

(1)

3 Application of Ichnology to Aquifer Characterization

871

(19)

3.1 Biscayne Aquifer in Southeastern Florida

872

(11)

3.2 Edwards-Trinity Aquifer System in Real County, Central Texas

883

(5)

3.3 Edwards-Trinity Aquifer System in Travis County, Central Texas

888

(2)

4 Conclusions

890

(2)

Acknowledgments

892

(1)

References

892

(5)

Epilogue

897

(4)

Index

901

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