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1 Introduction: Temperature and Some Comment on Work |
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1 | (24) |
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2 | (2) |
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1.2 Thermal Equilibrium and Temperature |
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4 | (3) |
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1.3 Thermodynamic Systems and the General Concept of Equilibrium |
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7 | (2) |
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1.3.1 Nonequilibrium and Irreversibility |
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8 | (1) |
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1.4 Dimension and Unit of Temperature |
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9 | (2) |
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1.4.1 Universal Constants: Dimensionless Conversion Factors and Dimensional Universal Constants |
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10 | (1) |
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1.5 Thermal Equation of State for Ideal Gases |
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11 | (3) |
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1.6 Mixtures of Ideal Gases |
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14 | (2) |
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16 | (1) |
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1.8 Calculation of ∫ pdV for "Quasi-static Processes" |
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17 | (2) |
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1.9 Difference Between a Mass Body and a Thermodynamic System |
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19 | (3) |
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1.9.1 Quasi-static Process and Work Reservoir |
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20 | (1) |
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1.9.2 A Mass Body and a Thermodynamic System: No Thermodynamic System is an Island |
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21 | (1) |
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22 | (1) |
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23 | (2) |
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2 Calorimetry and the Caloric Theory of Heat, the Measurement of Heat |
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25 | (12) |
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25 | (2) |
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2.2 Direct Heating: Sensible Heat and Latent Heat |
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27 | (5) |
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2.3 The Doctrine of Latent and Sensible Heats in an Internally Reversible Medium |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (3) |
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36 | (1) |
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3 The First Law: The Production of Heat and the Principle of Conservation of Energy |
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37 | (24) |
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37 | (1) |
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3.2 Adiabatic Work and Internal Energy |
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38 | (4) |
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3.3 Heat Exchange and the First Law of Thermodynamics |
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42 | (4) |
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3.4 Energy Conservation in a Reversible Universe |
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46 | (1) |
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3.5 Irreversible Universe: Heat versus Heat |
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46 | (2) |
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48 | (1) |
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3.7 Heat Capacity and Molar Heat Capacity |
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48 | (2) |
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3.8 Joule's Law (Joule Free Expansion): The Caloric Equation of State for Ideal Gases |
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50 | (2) |
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3.9 Quasi-static Heating and the Adiabatic Transformation of a Gas |
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52 | (4) |
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3.9.1 Isochoric processes |
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52 | (1) |
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52 | (1) |
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3.9.3 Adiabatic Transformation of an Ideal Gas |
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53 | (3) |
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3.10 Energy Analyses of Processes in Open Systems |
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56 | (1) |
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56 | (3) |
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59 | (2) |
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4 Carnot's Theory of Heat, and Kelvin's Adoption of Which in Terms of Energy |
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61 | (30) |
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4.1 Unidirectional Nature of Processes and the Production of Work |
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61 | (3) |
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4.2 The Carnot Cycle and Carnot's Principle |
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64 | (3) |
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4.3 The Absolute Thermodynamic Temperature |
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67 | (3) |
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4.3.1 Carnot's Reversible Efficiency |
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70 | (1) |
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4.4 Carnot's Function and Kelvin's Resolution of the Conflict Between MEH and Carnot's Principle |
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70 | (4) |
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4.5 Falling of Caloric in Reversible Processes |
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74 | (7) |
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4.5.1 Absolute Thermodynamic Temperature and the Ideal-Gas Thermometric Temperature |
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74 | (3) |
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77 | (2) |
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4.5.3 The Carnot Formula and the Kelvin Formula |
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79 | (1) |
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4.5.4 Caloric or Heat: Interpreted as Both Heat Flow and "Entropy" Flow |
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80 | (1) |
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4.5.5 Equivalence of the Clausius Statement and the Kelvin-Planck Statement |
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81 | (1) |
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4.6 Limitation in the Amount of Heat to be Converted into Mechanical Energy |
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81 | (2) |
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4.7 The Energy Principle, A Self-evident Proposition? |
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83 | (4) |
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4.8 Does the Heat-as-Energy Ontology Infer Equivalence-Convertibility Synonym? |
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87 | (2) |
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89 | (2) |
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5 Entropy and the Entropy Principle |
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91 | (44) |
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5.1 What Determines the Direction of Natural Processes? |
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91 | (2) |
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5.2 A Property of Reversible Cycles, the First Clausius Theorem |
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93 | (3) |
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5.2.1 The First Clausius Theorem |
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93 | (3) |
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5.3 The Entropy, a New State Variable |
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96 | (4) |
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5.3.1 Gibbs U-V-S Surface |
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98 | (1) |
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5.3.2 Entropy Change in Isobaric Processes |
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98 | (1) |
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5.3.3 The Entropy of Ideal Gases |
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99 | (1) |
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5.3.4 The Entropy of Liquids/Solids, An Approximate Formula |
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100 | (1) |
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5.4 Entropy Change in a System Undergoing an Irreversible Process |
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100 | (2) |
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5.5 The Principle of the Increase of Entropy |
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102 | (2) |
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5.5.1 Examples of the Application of the Entropy Principle |
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102 | (2) |
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5.6 The Definition of Heat |
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104 | (3) |
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5.7 Statistical Mechanics Formula of Boltzmann |
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107 | (1) |
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5.8 Isentropic Processes and Carnot Cycles |
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108 | (11) |
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5.9 Mixtures of Ideal Gases and Their Properties |
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119 | (5) |
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5.9.1 Entropy and Specific Gibbs Function of Mixture in Terms of T-p |
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122 | (2) |
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5.10 The Examples of Reversibly Controlled "Free Expansion" and Reversible Mixing of Ideal Gases: Why Kelvin's Second General Conclusion Is Not True? |
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124 | (5) |
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5.10.1 Controlled Expansion of the Oxygen System/Vacuum System |
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125 | (1) |
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5.10.2 Controlled Expansion of the Nitrogen System/Vacuum System |
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125 | (1) |
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5.10.3 Reversible Mixing of the 1.5 m3 Oxygen and the 1.5 m3 Nitrogen Systems |
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126 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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5.10.5 Kelvin's Energy Principle |
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127 | (2) |
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5.11 Concluding Remarks: Applications to Special States of Thermodynamic Equilibrium |
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129 | (4) |
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133 | (2) |
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6 Reversible Processes Versus Quasi-static Processes, and the Condition of Internal Reversibility |
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135 | (22) |
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6.1 The Project of Classical Formalism |
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136 | (1) |
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6.2 Quasi-static Processes and the Classical (Caratheodory) Formalism |
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137 | (4) |
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6.3 Infinitely Dense State Function Does Not Always Equal to Infinitely Slow Process |
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141 | (1) |
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6.4 Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium and the Modern (Brussels School) Formalism |
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142 | (6) |
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6.4.1 The Entropy Principle of the Modern Formalism |
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143 | (3) |
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6.4.2 Temperature of Clausius' Inequality |
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146 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Internal Reversibility as the Condition for Defining Entropy |
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146 | (2) |
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6.5 Useful Work and Action, Which Are What Distinguishes Reversible-Like Processes from Spontaneous Natural Processes |
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148 | (3) |
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6.5.1 Nonreversible Processes and Reversible-like Processes |
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150 | (1) |
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6.6 Internal Reversibility and the Cp -- Cv Question in Sect. 2.3 |
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151 | (1) |
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6.7 Conclusion: Nature as It Is and It Can Become |
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152 | (3) |
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155 | (2) |
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7 Free Energy, Exergy, and Energy: The Exergetic Content of Energy |
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157 | (32) |
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7.1 Thermodynamic Potentials and Free Energies |
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157 | (10) |
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7.1.1 The Extremum Principle for Thermodynamic Equilibriums of Composite Systems |
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159 | (4) |
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7.1.2 Helmholtz Free Energy and Gibbs Free Energy |
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163 | (3) |
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7.1.3 Example: Thermodynamics of a Battery |
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166 | (1) |
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7.2 Engineering Inference of the Entropy-Energy Principles |
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167 | (3) |
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168 | (1) |
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7.2.2 Energy Equation for Open Systems |
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169 | (1) |
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7.3 A Brief Review of the Concept of Exergy |
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170 | (4) |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (2) |
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174 | (1) |
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7.4 Thermodynamic Processes and Exergy Balance |
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174 | (4) |
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7.4.1 Control Volume Exergy Balance |
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176 | (2) |
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7.5 Chemical Exergy and Exergy of Heat and Cold |
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178 | (6) |
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7.5.1 Energy and Exergy Equations for a Control Volume |
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179 | (1) |
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7.5.2 Relation of Eqs. (118A) and (121) to the Gibbs Free Energy |
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179 | (4) |
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7.5.3 Exergy of Heat and Cold |
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183 | (1) |
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7.6 Energy: Exergetic Content of Energy and the Definition of Energy |
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184 | (2) |
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186 | (3) |
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8 The Second Law: The Entropy Growth Potential Principle and the Three-Place Relation in Heat Phenomena |
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189 | (46) |
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8.1 Introduction: The Energy Conversion Doctrine Truism |
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190 | (4) |
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8.1.1 Energy Conversion Doctrine and Energetics |
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193 | (1) |
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8.2 Laws of Balance and the Calculation of Entropy Production |
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194 | (2) |
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8.2.1 Calculation or Determination of Entropy Production |
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196 | (1) |
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8.3 The Entropic Drive Corollary |
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196 | (6) |
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8.4 Entropic Drive Corollary for Isolated Systems: Pure Spontaneity |
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202 | (8) |
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8.5 The Entropy Growth Potential Principle |
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210 | (2) |
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8.5.1 Conceptual Differentiation of Entropy Growth and Entropy Growth Potential |
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211 | (1) |
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8.6 The Predicative Entropic Theory of Heat |
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212 | (5) |
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8.6.1 Peirce's Reduction Thesis and Carnot's Theory as a Triadic Relational Theory of Heat |
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212 | (2) |
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8.6.2 The Predicative Entropic Theory of Heat (PETH) |
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214 | (3) |
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8.7 The Triadic Framework: All Reversible Processes Are Heat Extraction Processes |
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217 | (8) |
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8.7.1 Definition of Waste Heat |
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219 | (1) |
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8.7.2 Kinds of EGP's: Stock EGP and Natural (Ongoing) EGP |
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220 | (1) |
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8.7.3 Additional Examples of Heat Extraction |
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221 | (1) |
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8.7.4 Reversible Free Heat ΔQ and Free Energy ΔF |
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222 | (1) |
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8.7.5 Chemical Composite Systems: Gibbs Free Energy |
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223 | (2) |
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8.8 Entropy Growth Potential and Reversibility's Triadic Framework |
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225 | (7) |
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232 | (3) |
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9 Applications to Special States of Thermodynamic Equilibrium: Gibbsian Thermodynamics for Physical and Chemical Applications |
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235 | (40) |
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9.1 The Fundamental Functions of State and the Fundamental Differentials |
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236 | (3) |
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9.1.1 Equations of State for Ideal Gases and the Ideal Gas Fundamental Equation of State |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (2) |
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9.3 Open Systems with Semi-permeable Membrane Opening, and Multicomponent Closed Systems |
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241 | (2) |
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9.4 Formal Structure of Gibbsian Thermodynamics |
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243 | (4) |
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243 | (1) |
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9.4.2 Alternative Fundamental Functions and Fundamental Differentials |
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244 | (2) |
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9.4.3 The Maxwell Relations |
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246 | (1) |
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9.5 Determination of Thermodynamic Properties Based on Measurable Data |
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247 | (6) |
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247 | (1) |
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248 | (4) |
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9.5.3 Why the Whole of Fresh Water Lakes Do Not Freeze in Winter? |
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252 | (1) |
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9.5.4 Convective Equilibrium of Atmospheric Air at Hydrostatic Equilibrium |
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252 | (1) |
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9.6 Thermal Equilibrium and Mechanical Equilibrium |
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253 | (6) |
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9.6.1 Thermal Equilibrium |
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254 | (2) |
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9.6.2 Mechanical Equilibrium |
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256 | (3) |
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9.7 Gaseous Mixtures and Their Properties |
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259 | (1) |
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9.7.1 Specific Gibbs Function of Mixture in Terms of T-p |
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259 | (1) |
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9.8 Combustion Chemical Reactions and Enthalpy Balance |
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260 | (7) |
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9.8.1 Enthalpy of Formation |
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261 | (4) |
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9.8.2 Fuel Heating Value (HV: HHV and LHV) |
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265 | (2) |
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9.9 Chemical Equilibrium (Gaseous Reaction Product Composition) |
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267 | (7) |
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274 | (1) |
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10 A Theory of Heat as Prelude to Engineering Thermodynamics |
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275 | (18) |
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10.1 Engineering Thermodynamics |
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275 | (2) |
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10.2 Heat Transfer Phenomena are Described by Governing Equations |
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277 | (4) |
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10.2.1 Governing Equation for Heat Transfer Problems |
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278 | (3) |
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10.3 Energy Analysis and Exergy Analysis |
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281 | (4) |
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10.3.1 Rate of Work Done by a Control Volume and Energy Balance in Integral Form for a Control Volume |
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282 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Exergy Balance in Integral Form for a Control Volume |
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283 | (2) |
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10.4 Shaft Work Entails Mechanism for Its Fulfillment |
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285 | (3) |
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10.5 Determination and Causal Closure |
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288 | (1) |
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10.6 Engineering for Efficiency |
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289 | (2) |
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291 | (2) |
| Glossary |
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293 | (6) |
| Index |
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299 | |
Lisainfo e-raamatute kohta