E-raamat: Undersea Fiber Communication Systems

Contributors		xv
Foreword		xxiii
Preface		xxv
I INTRODUCTION		1	(540)
Introduction to Submarine Fiber Communication
Jose Chesnoy
Jean Jerpahagnon
Introduction		3	(2)
Configuration of a Submarine Communication System		5	(1)
The Advent of Terabit Optical Technology		6	(5)
The Birth of Optical Technology		6	(2)
The First Transoceanic Optical Systems		8	(1)
Optical Amplification		9	(1)
WDM Optical Systems		10	(1)
Evolution of Submarine Systems in the 2000s		11	(1)
Objectives and Outline of the Book		11	(5)
References		13	(3)
Historical Overview of Submarine Communication Systems
Gerard Fouchard
Introduction		16	(1)
The Era of Telegraphy over Submarine Cables		17	(13)
The Early Age of the Electric Telegraph (1800-1850)		17	(1)
The British Era of Submarine Cable (1850-1872)		18	(4)
The Global Network (1872-1920)		22	(3)
Cable and Radio Competition (1920-1960)		25	(1)
Technical and Economical Aspects		26	(4)
The Era of Telephone on Coaxial Cables		30	(8)
The Earliest Telephonic Submarine Cable Trials		30	(1)
The First Generation of Coaxial Submarine Cable (1850-1961)		31	(1)
The Second Generation of Coaxial Submarine Cable (1960-1970)		32	(2)
Wideband Submarine Cables (1970-1988)		34	(1)
Technical and Economical Aspects		34	(4)
The Era of Fiber Optic Submarine Cables		38	(9)
From Analog to Digital (1976-1988)		38	(1)
Regenerated Fiber Optic Cables and the Consortium Era (1986-1995)		39	(5)
Optical Amplification and WDM Technology (1995-2000)		44	(1)
Cable Ships and Offshore Works		45	(2)
Conclusion		47	(6)
References		47	(6)
II SUBMARINE SYSTEM DESIGN
Basics of Digital Optical Communications
Philippe Gallion
Optical Channel and the Multiplexed Data		53	(4)
Optical Bandwidth		53	(1)
Optical Channel Capacity		53	(3)
Binary Optical Channel and the Symbol Probabilities		56	(1)
Modulation Formats and Modulation Bandwidth		57	(10)
Parameters to Be Modulated		57	(1)
Spectrum of Digitally Modulated Signals		58	(3)
Modulation Formats		61	(4)
Modulation Implementation		65	(2)
Signal and Noises at the Receiver		67	(12)
Photodetector Sensitivity and Optical-to-Electrical Signal Conversion		67	(1)
Noise Generation and Demonstration Mechanisms at the Receiver		68	(6)
Noise Addition in Optical Amplification		74	(4)
Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio		78	(1)
Receiver Performance Evaluation		79	(17)
Electrical Signal-to-Noise Ratio Definition		79	(1)
Bit Error Ratio and Receiver Sensitivity Definitions		79	(4)
Shot-Noise-Limited Ideal Detection		83	(3)
Amplifier Less Thermal-Noise-Limited Detection		86	(1)
Detection of Preamplified Optical Signals		87	(5)
References		92	(4)
Optical Amplification
Dominique Bayart
Introduction		96	(1)
EDFA Amplification Principles		97	(12)
Basic Principles		97	(5)
Dynamic Behavior		102	(2)
Noise Characteristics		104	(3)
Giles Parameters		107	(2)
Requirements for Submarine Systems		109	(6)
Noise Figure		109	(2)
Hydrogen Sensitivity		111	(1)
Power Consumption		111	(1)
Polarization-Dependent Loss		111	(1)
Polarization Mode Dispersion		112	(1)
Polarization-Dependent Gain		112	(1)
Comparison with Terrestrial Requirements		113	(2)
Related Technology		115	(2)
Single-Channel EDFAs		117	(9)
Gain Peak Wavelength Determination		117	(2)
Parameters That Influence GPW		119	(1)
Self-Filtering Effect		119	(3)
Design Rules		122	(1)
Gain Compression and Pump Wavelength		123	(1)
Glass Composition		124	(1)
Signal-to-Noise Ratio		124	(2)
Multichannel WDM EDFAs		126	(6)
Gain Bandwidth		126	(1)
Glass Composition		127	(2)
Gain Equalization		129	(2)
Equalization Technology		131	(1)
EDFA Impairments		132	(6)
Polarization Effects		133	(1)
Spectral Hole Burning		133	(2)
Modeling of Spectral Hole Burning		135	(1)
Other Limitations		136	(2)
Operation with L-Band EDFAs		138	(4)
System Performance		138	(2)
Field Implementation Issues		140	(1)
C + L-Band Systems		140	(2)
Implementation of Raman Amplification		142	(5)
Principle of Raman Amplification		142	(3)
Practical Implementation as Preamplification EDFAs		145	(1)
All-Raman Amplified Submarine Links		145	(2)
Further Amplification Perspectives		147	(11)
References		148	(10)
Ultra-Long-Haul Submarine Transmission
Olivier Gautheron
Omar Ait Sab
Introduction		158	(1)
Key Features of Long-Haul Transmission Systems		158	(19)
A Technical Challenge: High Capacity per Optical Fiber		158	(2)
Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio		160	(3)
Reduction of the Propagation Impairment		163	(3)
Submarine Line Terminal Equipment Features		166	(3)
Repeater Supervisory and Fiber Fault Localization		169	(4)
Q Budget and Typical Repeater Spacing		173	(4)
Gain Equalization		177	(11)
Power Preemphasis		177	(3)
Fixed-Gain Equalizer		180	(4)
Tunable Gain Equalizer		184	(2)
Impact of Nonoptimal Gain Equalization		186	(2)
Chromatic Dispersion and Nonlinear Effects		188	(12)
Nonlinear Kerr-Type Effects		188	(3)
Stimulated Raman Scattering		191	(2)
Transmission Experiments		193	(7)
Forward Error Correcting Codes		200	(10)
Performance Requirement in Submarine Systems		200	(1)
Introduction to Forward Error Correction		201	(1)
Channel Model and Fundamental Limits		202	(2)
Practical Forward Error Correction Schemes in Submarine Transmission Systems		204	(1)
Reed-Solomon Codes		205	(1)
Concatenated Codes		206	(2)
Turbo Product Codes		208	(1)
Examples of FEC Scheme Performances for Submarine Transmission Systems		209	(1)
Technology Evolution		210	(13)
Modulation Format		210	(2)
C + L-Band Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier		212	(1)
Transmission Systems with Distributed Raman Amplifiers		213	(6)
40-Gbps Wavelength-Division Multiplexed Transmission Experiments		219	(4)
Conclusion		223	(6)
References		224	(5)
Unrepeatered Transmission
Eric Brandon
J.-P. Blondel
Introduction		229	(1)
Recent Developments		230	(5)
Applications		235	(1)
System Configurations		236	(1)
Unrepeatered System Technologies		237	(12)
Line Fiber		238	(1)
Postamplification		239	(1)
Preamplification		240	(1)
Raman Amplification		241	(5)
Remote Amplification		246	(3)
Limitations Induced by Nonlinear Effects		249	(8)
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering		249	(1)
Kerr Effect		250	(3)
Stimulated Raman Scattering		253	(4)
Power Budget Calculation		257	(1)
Main Laboratory Achievements		257	(4)
Installed Unrepeatered Systems		261	(9)
Deployed Unrepeatered Systems		261	(3)
Safety Aspects		264	(1)
References		265	(5)
Polarization Effects in Long-Haul Undersea Systems
C. R. Menyuk
B. S. Marks
I. T. Lima Jr.
J. Zweck
Y. Sun
G. M. Carter
D. Wang
Introduction		270	(3)
Propagation of Polarized Light in an Optical Fiber Transmission System		273	(15)
Fiber Propagation		273	(4)
Polarization Mode Dispersion		277	(5)
Polarization-Dependent Loss and Gain		282	(4)
Comments on Notation and Nomenclature		286	(2)
Reduced Stokes Parameter Model		288	(19)
Model Formulation		288	(3)
Theoretical Validation		291	(8)
Experimental Validation		299	(2)
Applications to Transoceanic Systems		301	(3)
References		304	(3)
Nonlinear Transmission Techniques and Solitons
S. Wabnitz
Introduction		307	(1)
Nonlinear Pulse Propagation		308	(11)
Periodic Loss Averaging		310	(1)
Soliton Perturbation Theory		311	(2)
Soliton-Noise Interactions		313	(1)
Soliton 2-R Regeneration		314	(2)
Soliton-Soliton Interactions		316	(1)
Polarization Multiplexing		316	(2)
Soliton 3-R Regeneration		318	(1)
Dispersion-Managed Solitons		319	(17)
Variational Representation		320	(1)
Dispersion-Managed Soliton-Noise Interactions		321	(1)
Dispersion-Managed Soliton Example		321	(1)
Self-Phase Modulation		322	(2)
Dispersion-Managed Soliton 2-R Regeneration		324	(2)
Cross-Phase Modulation		326	(1)
Doubly Periodic Maps		327	(2)
Nonlinear Chirped Return-to-Zero Pulse		329	(1)
Dispersion-Managed Soliton 3-R Regeneration		330	(2)
Dispersion-Managed Soliton Distributed Raman Amplification		332	(4)
Conclusions		336	(8)
References		337	(7)
III Submarine Equipment
Submerged Plant
Neville J. Hazell
Christopher E. Little
Overview of Submerged Plant		344	(2)
Repeaters		346	(8)
Optical Topology		346	(4)
Drive and Control Electronics		350	(1)
Supervisory Functionality		350	(3)
Power Unit and Protection		353	(1)
Equalizers		354	(3)
Passive Equalizers		355	(1)
Active Tilt Equalizers		355	(2)
Branching Units		357	(6)
Full Fiber-Drop Branching Units		358	(1)
Wavelength Add/Drop Branching Units		359	(1)
Power Module		360	(3)
Mechanical Engineering of Submarine Equipment		363	(3)
Internal Design Aspects		364	(1)
External Aspects of Design		365	(1)
Power-Feed Equipment for Submarine Equipment		366	(4)
Network Powering		367	(2)
High-Voltage Generation		369	(1)
Other Functions		369	(1)
Reliability		370	(4)
Quality Control and Qualification		371	(1)
Reliability of Submerged Plant		372	(1)
Reliability of Power-Feed Equipment		373	(1)
Future Trends in Submarine Equipment		374	(3)
References		375	(2)
Terminal Equipment
Katsuo Suzuki
Introduction		377	(3)
Transmission Equipment for Wavelength-Division-Multiplexed Systems		380	(17)
Submarine Line Terminal Equipment for 2.5-Gbps WDM Systems		380	(5)
Submarine Line Terminal Equipment for 10-Gbps WDM Systems		385	(12)
Supervisory and Network Management Systems		397	(10)
Outline of Network Management System		397	(2)
Details of Submarine Element and Network Management		399	(3)
Integration with Terrestrial Systems		402	(1)
Standard Interface between EM and NM Layers		403	(1)
Implementation of the CORBA Interface		404	(3)
View on Future Developments		407	(3)
Increasing the Number of Multiplexed Wavelengths		408	(1)
Increasing the Line Bit Rate		409	(1)
Downsizing of Equipment		409	(1)
Conclusion		410	(3)
References		410	(3)
Network Architectures for Submarine Systems
Howard Kidorf
Introduction		413	(1)
Application of Undersea Cable Systems in Global Networking		414	(2)
Domestic Networks		414	(2)
Regional Networks		416	(1)
Interregional Networks		416	(1)
Branching Units		416	(4)
Protection Mechanisms: Linear and Ring		420	(7)
Reducing the Amount of Protection Equipment		424	(3)
Protection Mechanisms: Optical Cross-Connects and Mesh Protection		427	(3)
Non-SDH/SONET Undersea Networking		430	(2)
Future of Submarine Networks		432	(3)
References		433	(2)
Submarine Fiber
Scott R. Bickham
Michael B. Cain
Introduction		435	(3)
Optical Waveguide Fabrication and Theory		438	(3)
Fabrication		438	(2)
Waveguide Theory		440	(1)
Fiber Attributes		441	(10)
Attenuation and Bending		441	(2)
Cutoff Wavelength		443	(1)
Mode Field and Effective Area		444	(1)
Dispersion		445	(3)
Dispersion Compensation and Equivalent Effective Area		448	(3)
Summary and Characteristics of Next-Generation Fibers		451	(3)
References		452	(2)
Cable Technology
Jean Francois Libert
Gary Waterworth
Introduction		454	(1)
Cable Requirements		454	(3)
General Requirements		455	(1)
Pressure and Temperature Range		455	(1)
Water and Gaseous Ingress		456	(1)
Manufacturing and Installation Requirements		456	(1)
Cable Characteristics		457	(12)
Cable Types		457	(4)
Mechanical Characteristics		461	(5)
Electrical Characteristics		466	(3)
Cable Design		469	(19)
Optical Fiber		469	(6)
Optical Package		475	(4)
Inner Strength Member		479	(3)
Cable Insulation		482	(2)
Water Blocking		484	(1)
Armor Protection		484	(2)
Hydrogen Protection		486	(2)
Cable Qualification		488	(4)
Fiber Microbend Sensitivity Tests		488	(2)
Fiber Macrobend Sensitivity Tests		490	(1)
Optical Performance after Cable Manufacture		490	(1)
Fiber Sensitivity to Hydrogen		491	(1)
Thermal Tests to Simulate Cable Laying		491	(1)
Thermal Tests to Simulate Cable Storage		491	(1)
Radial Permeation of Cable Structures		492	(1)
Dry Thermal Test for Accelerated Aging		492	(1)
Long Length Tensile Test		492	(1)
Conclusion		492	(6)
References		493	(5)
Marine and Maintenance (From Inception to the Grave)
John Horne
Introduction		498	(1)
Choice of a Cable Route		498	(4)
Feasibility and Desktop Studies		499	(1)
Key Areas of the Desktop Study		500	(2)
Marine Survey and the Available Tools		502	(5)
Burial Assessment Survey		503	(1)
Surveys to Determine Water Depth and Sea Bottom Profile		504	(3)
Route Engineering		507	(5)
System Route Engineering		507	(1)
Slack Planning		507	(4)
Marine Installation Program		511	(1)
The Suppliers' Manufacturing Program		511	(1)
Tools Used for Marine Installation and Repair		512	(6)
Cable Ships		512	(2)
Ploughs		514	(1)
Remotely Operated Vehicles		515	(2)
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles		517	(1)
Cable Grapnels		517	(1)
Software Tools		518	(1)
Marine Installation Activities		518	(14)
Cable-Loading Activities		521	(1)
Shore-End Landings		522	(3)
Surface Laying of Cable		525	(1)
Ploughed Lay		525	(1)
Cable and Pipeline Crossings		526	(1)
Cable Splices		527	(2)
Laying a Branching Unit		529	(1)
Postlay Inspection and Burial		530	(1)
Power-Feeding Safety		531	(1)
Bow Working		532	(1)
System Maintenance Capabilities and Cable Repair Operations		532	(6)
Typical Surface-Laid Cable Repair Operation		535	(3)
Maintenance Support Facilities		538	(1)
The Grave		539	(2)
References		540	(1)
Index		541

José Chesnoy is an independent expert and consultant on undersea fiberoptic systems, and co-founder of the Subsea Optical Fiber Communications summer school. He began his career at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and pioneered the development of amplified submarine cables. Then he moved to Alcatel-Lucent Submarine Networks (ASN) where he successively led the development of submarine systems and WDM equipment, and was CTO of ASN before moving into independent consulting.

Govind P. Agrawal received his B.Sc. degree from the University of Lucknow in 1969 with honours. He was awarded a gold medal for achieving the top position in the university. Govind joined the Indian Institute of Technology at New Delhi in 1969 and received the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in 1971 and 1974, respectively. After holding positions at the Ecole Polytechnique (France), the City University of New York, and the Laser company, Quantel, Orsay, France, Dr. Agrawal joined in 1981 the technical staff of the world-famous AT&T Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, N.J., USA, where he worked on problems related to the development of semiconductor lasers and fiber-optic communication systems. He joined in 1989 the faculty of the Institute of Optics at the University of Rochester where he is a Professor of Optics. His research interests focus on quantum electronics, nonlinear optics, and optical communications. In particular, he has contributed significantly to the fields of semiconductor lasers, nonlinear fiber optics, and optical communications. He is an author or co-author of more than 250 research papers, several book chapters and review articles, and four books. He has also edited the books "Contemporary Nonlinear Optics" (Academic Press, 1992) and "Semiconductor Lasers: Past, Present and Future" (AIP Press, 1995). The books authored by Dr. Agrawal have influenced an entire generation of scientists. Several of them have been translated into Chinese, Japanese, Greek, and Russian. Ivan Kaminow retired from Bell Labs in 1996 after a 42-year career. He conducted seminal studies on electrooptic modulators and materials, Raman scattering in ferroelectrics, integrated optics, semiconductor lasers (DBR, ridge-waveguide InGaAsP and multi-frequency), birefringent optical fibers, and WDM networks. Later, he led research on WDM components (EDFAs, AWGs and fiber Fabry-Perot Filters), and on WDM local and wide area networks. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and a recipient of the IEEE Edison Medal, OSA Ives Medal, and IEEE Photonics Award. Since 2004, he has been Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley.Ivan Kaminow retired from Bell Labs in 1996 after a 42-year career. He conducted seminal studies on electrooptic modulators and materials, Raman scattering in ferroelectrics, integrated optics, semiconductor lasers (DBR , ridge-waveguide InGaAsP and multi-frequency), birefringent optical fibers, and WDM networks. Later, he led research on WDM components (EDFAs, AWGs and fiber Fabry-Perot Filters), and on WDM local and wide area networks. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and a recipient of the IEEE/OSA John Tyndall, OSA Charles Townes and IEEE/LEOS Quantum Electronics Awards. Since 2004, he has been Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley.