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E-raamat: Variability in Human Performance

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(University of Minnesota, Mendota Heights, USA), (University of Minnesota, USA), (University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA), (University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA)
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Understanding the conditions under which variability in performance may arise, and the processes related to its emergence, gives us insight into the development of techniques for improving the quality of performance. Variability in Human Performance details the scientific and the practical implications of human performance variability by providing a broad perspective on how and why such variability occurs across a number of disciplinary domains. The text takes an approach that rests upon the idea of context, or design, specificity in performance, namely that variability in performance is closely referenced to design factors in the environment in which performance is occurring.

An exploration of the link between variability and related processes, the book introduces a comprehensive framework for understanding human performance variability, presented in terms of how human control of behavior is closely tied to design factors in the performance environment. The authors introduce empirical evidence, as well as practical examples and application areas, in support of this framework. The book begins with coverage of neurobiological and biomechanical basis of movement variability, then examines rich and extensive empirical evidence available for context specificity in cognitive performance and learning, as a basis for cognitive performance variability. The book then reviews the evidence for context specificity in:

  • Student learning
  • Displaced feedback conditions
  • Human error behavior
  • Affective performance
  • Social and team performance

The authors also explore work performance as influenced by complex sociotechnical systems and as a basis for performance variability, applying control systems concepts to an interpretation of the nature and basis of performance variability in all of these domains. They conclude by taking an evolutionary perspective on the origins and behavioral significance of human performance variability. The book then provides strategies on how individuals, groups, and organizations can significantly reduce variability in human performance that often leads to systems failures.

Arvustused

"Throughout, the book focuses on the sources of variability in human performance, including the design of work systems. The book will therefore be of interest to a wide range of HFE specialists."RS Bridger, Institute of Naval Medicine

"This is a truly excellent book that increases awareness of the study of variability in movement performance. Importantly, this book provides exciting discussions on theoretical problems on movement variability such as what are the sources of this variability." DR. Nick Stergiou, University of Nebraska Omaha and University of Nebraska Medical Center

Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Authors xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1(30)
1.1 Overview
1(9)
1.1.1 Definitions
2(1)
1.1.2 Purpose and Scope
3(2)
1.1.3 Key Principles of HF/E Science
5(5)
1.2 Key Issues Bearing on the Properties and Purpose of Performance Variability
10(6)
1.2.1 Individual Differences
11(2)
1.2.2 Performance Prediction
13(3)
1.3 A Control Systems Perspective on Performance Variability
16(13)
1.3.1 Historical Perspective
17(1)
1.3.2 Control Systems Concepts
18(3)
1.3.3 Behavioral Cybernetics of Adaptive Systems Behavior
21(4)
1.3.4 Behavioral Cybernetics of Cognition
25(4)
1.4 Summary
29(2)
Chapter 2 Variability in Human Motor and Sport Performance 31(20)
2.1 Introduction
31(2)
2.2 The Role of Variability in Behavioral Control
33(2)
2.3 Methods for Analyzing Performance Variability
35(7)
2.3.1 Linear Methods
36(1)
2.3.2 Nonlinear Methods
36(6)
2.3.2.1 Time Series Analysis
36(3)
2.3.2.2 Fourier Transform Analysis
39(3)
2.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Variability and Sport Skill Learning
42(2)
2.4.1 Schema Theory
42(1)
2.4.2 Dynamical Systems Theory
43(1)
2.5 Variability in Learning and Performing Skills
44(2)
2.5.1 Variability between Expert and Novice Performers
45(1)
2.5.2 Variability in Rehabilitation Settings
46(1)
2.6 Summary
46(5)
Chapter 3 Variability in Cognitive and Psychomotor Performance 51(24)
3.1 Overview
51(1)
3.2 Historical Perspective
51(2)
3.3 Variability in Cognitive Performance
53(9)
3.3.1 Early Transfer of Training Example
55(1)
3.3.2 Differential Learning Research: Early Studies
56(1)
3.3.3 Differential Learning Research: Analytical Innovations
56(3)
3.3.4 Critical Analyses of Ackerman
59(2)
3.3.5 Summary
61(1)
3.4 Variability in Psychomotor Performance
62(6)
3.4.1 Transfer of Training among Different Balance Tests
62(1)
3.4.2 Fitts' Law: Context Specificity in Movement Time Performance
63(1)
3.4.3 Hick-Hyman Law: Context Specificity in Choice Reaction Time Performance
64(2)
3.4.4 The Law of Practice: Context Specificity in Learning
66(2)
3.4.5 Summary
68(1)
3.5 Qualitative Observations about Task Performance Variability
68(5)
3.5.1 Language
68(2)
3.5.2 Situation Awareness
70(2)
3.5.3 Context Specific Observations of Gladwell
72(1)
3.5.4 Summary
73(1)
3.6 Conclusions
73(2)
Chapter 4 Educational Ergonomics: Context Specificity in Student Learning 75(38)
4.1 Overview
75(1)
4.2 Introduction
75(2)
4.3 The Nature of Student Learning from the Perspective of Educational Psychology
77(3)
4.4 The Nature of Student Learning from the Perspective of HF/E
80(1)
4.5 Origins and Scope of Learning Ergonomics
81(3)
4.6 The Influence of HF/E Design Factors on Student Performance and Learning
84(25)
4.6.1 Impact of Classroom and School Building Design Factors on Student Performance and Learning
86(5)
4.6.1.1 Design Features of Classroom Environments and Building Facilities
86(2)
4.6.1.2 Classroom Technology
88(2)
4.6.1.3 Online Learning Environments
90(1)
4.6.2 Impact of Educational System Design Factors on Student Performance and Learning
91(4)
4.6.2.1 Smaller Class Size
91(1)
4.6.2.2 Longer Exposure to Learning
91(1)
4.6.2.3 School Choice
92(1)
4.6.2.4 School Funding
93(1)
4.6.2.5 School Size
93(1)
4.6.2.6 School Start Times
94(1)
4.6.2.7 Levels of Teacher Training and Teacher Pay
94(1)
4.6.3 Impact of Learning Strategy Design Factors on Student Performance and Learning
95(4)
4.6.3.1 Cooperative Learning
95(1)
4.6.3.2 Early Childhood Education
95(1)
4.6.3.3 Amount of Homework
96(1)
4.6.3.4 Teaching Quality
97(2)
4.6.4 Impact of Student Character and Emotional Status on Student Performance and Learning
99(2)
4.6.4.1 Student Character
100(1)
4.6.4.2 Emotional Status
100(1)
4.6.5 Impact of Student Health on Student Performance and Learning
101(2)
4.6.5.1 Nutritional Adequacy
101(1)
4.6.5.2 Good Physical Fitness Levels and Participation in Physical Activity
102(1)
4.6.6 Impact of Community System Design Factors on Student Performance and Learning
103(6)
4.6.6.1 Informal Learning
103(1)
4.6.6.2 Community Socioeconomic Status and School-Community Integration
104(5)
4.7 Limitations
109(1)
4.7.1 Influence of Nondesign-Related Factors on Student Learning
109(1)
4.7.2 Analysis Offers Nothing New
110(1)
4.7.3 Some Design Factors Not Considered
110(1)
4.8 Conclusions
110(3)
Chapter 5 Variability in Human Performance under Displaced Sensory Feedback 113(40)
5.1 Overview
113(3)
5.2 Historical Perspective
116(4)
5.2.1 Early History of Spatially Displaced Visual Feedback Research
116(1)
5.2.2 Early History of Delayed Feedback Research
116(4)
5.2.2.1 Delayed Visual Feedback
116(2)
5.2.2.2 Delayed Auditory Feedback
118(2)
5.2.3 Summary
120(1)
5.3 Behavioral Control Systems Analysis of Displaced Visual Feedback Effects
120(8)
5.3.1 Examples of Spatially Displaced Visual Feedback
121(2)
5.3.2 Example of Delayed Visual Feedback
123(5)
5.4 Compilation of Performance Effects of Spatially Displaced and Delayed Sensory Feedback
128(9)
5.4.1 Interpretation
136(1)
5.5 Displaced Sensory Feedback Effects on Teleoperation
137(12)
5.5.1 Human Factors Issues with Workstation Telepresence
138(4)
5.5.2 Performance Variability during Teleoperation
142(13)
5.5.2.1 Teleoperation Performance under Spatially Displaced Visual Feedback
142(2)
5.5.2.2 Other Sources of Spatially Perturbed Visual Feedback during Teleoperation
144(1)
5.5.2.3 Reversed Visual Feedback in Minimally Invasive Surgery
145(2)
5.5.2.4 Interpretation
147(1)
5.5.2.5 Teleoperation Performance under Feedback Delay
147(2)
5.6 Conclusions
149(4)
Chapter 6 Human Error and Performance Variability 153(26)
6.1 Introduction
153(1)
6.2 Historical Perspective
153(2)
6.3 Context Specificity in Human Error
155(3)
6.3.1 Management Responsibility for Human Error
157(1)
6.4 Human Error as an Inherent Attribute of Human Performance Variability
158(3)
6.5 A Control Systems Perspective on Error Performance
161(1)
6.6 There are Evident Limitations to the Term "Human Error" as a Meaningful Scientific and Operational Concept
162(3)
6.7 Principles of Hazard Management
165(11)
6.7.1 Definitions, Scope, and Historical Perspective
166(1)
6.7.2 Rationale and Background
167(1)
6.7.3 Behavioral Cybernetic Model of Hazard Management
168(2)
6.7.4 Key Principles of Hazard Management
170(6)
6.8 Conclusions
176(3)
Chapter 7 Variability in Affective Performance 179(14)
7.1 Introduction
179(1)
7.2 Historical Perspective
180(1)
7.3 Personality and Performance Variability
180(6)
7.4 Emotion and Performance Variability
186(5)
7.5 Conclusions
191(2)
Chapter 8 Social Cybernetics of Team Performance Variability 193(18)
8.1 Introduction
193(1)
8.2 Cybernetic Fundamentals of Feedback and Feedforward Control
194(1)
8.3 Longstanding Scientific Reservations about Cybernetic Psychology
195(2)
8.4 Social Cybernetics and Teamwork
197(3)
8.4.1 Modes of Social Tracking
198(1)
8.4.1.1 Imitative Social Tracking
198(1)
8.4.1.2 Parallel-Linked Social Tracking
198(1)
8.4.1.3 Serial-Linked (or Series-Linked) Social Tracking
199(1)
8.4.2 Feedback Perturbation of Social Tracking
199(1)
8.5 Social Cybernetic Studies of Social Interaction and Teamwork Through 1994
200(1)
8.5.1 Design Factors and Variability in Social Tracking
200(1)
8.5.2 Sensory Feedback Modality and Social Tracking Skill
200(1)
8.5.3 Learning of Social Tracking Skills
200(1)
8.5.4 Physiological Feedback Effects in Social Tracking
200(1)
8.5.5 Effects of Sensory Feedback Perturbations on Social Tracking
201(1)
8.5.6 Social Tracking in Group Interaction
201(1)
8.5.7 Social Cybernetic Basis of Cognitive Behavior and Communication
201(1)
8.6 Social Cybernetics Research Since 1994
201(3)
8.6.1 Feedback Control Compliance During Parallel-Linked Social Tracking
201(1)
8.6.2 Delayed Feedback in Serial-Linked and Mutual Social Tracking
202(1)
8.6.3 Augmented Team Cognition
203(1)
8.6.4 Social Cybernetics in Participatory Ergonomics Programs
203(1)
8.7 Design Imperatives for Homeokinesis at the Team Level
204(2)
8.8 Assessment of Homeokinesis at the Team Level
206(3)
8.9 Conclusions
209(2)
Chapter 9 Variability in Human Work Performance: Interaction with Complex Sociotechnical Systems 211(74)
9.1 Introduction
211(2)
9.2 Historical Perspective
213(5)
9.3 The Nature and Significance of Work
218(7)
9.3.1 Introduction: Human Control of the Behavioral Environment through Work
218(1)
9.3.2 Theories of Work
219(2)
9.3.3 General Laws and Customs of Work
221(3)
9.3.4 The Future of Work
224(1)
9.4 Work Performance Variability and Interaction with Complex Sociotechnical Systems
225(40)
9.4.1 Work Performance Variability and the Design and Management of Organizational Systems
226(16)
9.4.1.1 How Are Organizational and Work Performance Variability Interrelated?
226(2)
9.4.1.2 What Factors Influence Organizational Performance, and Thereby Influence Work Performance Variability?
228(13)
9.4.1.3 Summary
241(1)
9.4.2 Macroergonomic Perspectives on Organizational Performance Variability
242(4)
9.4.2.1 Summary
245(1)
9.4.3 Synergism of Ergonomics with Safety, Quality, and Productivity of Organizational and Work Performance
246(9)
9.4.3.1 Organizational Cybernetics of Complex Sociotechnical Systems
246(3)
9.4.3.2 Supporting Evidence from Field Observations
249(6)
9.4.3.3 Summary
255(1)
9.4.4 Operational Synergism between Safety and Quality
255(5)
9.4.4.1 Method
256(1)
9.4.4.2 Results
256(2)
9.4.4.3 Discussion
258(2)
9.4.5 A Control Systems Perspective on Organizational Design and Management: Role of Ergonomics
260(3)
9.4.6 Conclusions
263(2)
9.5 Work Performance Variability and Performance Variability of Economies and Nation States
265(17)
9.5.1 A Control Systems Perspective on Variability in Economic Performance
265(2)
9.5.2 Work Performance Variability and Variability in Economic Performance
267(10)
9.5.3 Work Performance Variability and Variability in Nation-State Performance
277(4)
9.5.4 A Control Systems Perspective on Variability in Nation-State Performance
281(1)
9.6 Conclusions
282(3)
Chapter 10 Variability in Fracture-Critical Systems 285(14)
10.1 Introduction
285(1)
10.2 Fracture-Critical System Failures
285(2)
10.3 Why Fracture-Critical Failures Happen
287(1)
10.4 Jeopardizing the Future
288(3)
10.5 The Futility of Massive Scale
291(2)
10.6 The Perversity of Unintended Consequences
293(2)
10.7 Creating a More Resilient Future for Ourselves
295(4)
Chapter 11 Human Performance Variability: An Evolutionary Perspective 299(16)
11.1 Introduction
299(3)
11.1.1 Mechanisms of Evolution
300(2)
11.2 Nature Versus Nurture
302(3)
11.2.1 Heritability of Intelligence
303(1)
11.2.2 Epigenetics
304(1)
11.2.3 Implications for Context Specificity
305(1)
11.3 Phylogenetic Origins of Human Performance Variability
305(1)
11.4 Human Self-Selection through Work
305(8)
11.4.1 Landmarks in the Evolution of Human Work
308(5)
11.5 Conclusions
313(2)
Chapter 12 Summary and Conclusions 315(6)
12.1 Summary
315(3)
12.2 Conclusions: The Purpose of Human Performance Variability
318(3)
Note 321(2)
References 323(40)
Index 363
Thomas J. Smith has research and teaching experience and funding support encompassing many areas of human factors/ergonomics, including human performance variability, educational ergonomics, human error and hazard management, occupational ergonomics, occupational health and safety, surface transportation, occupancy quality, patient safety, work physiology, kinesiology, and ergonomics certification systems. He is a research associate with the School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota. He is a Certified Human Factors Professional with over 100 publications. His honors include serving as senior editor for a recent special issue of Ergonomics in Design dealing with the topic of globalization of ergonomics, serving as chair of the Professional Standards and Education Standing Committee for the International Ergonomics Association (IEA), originator and committee member for the IEA K.U. Smith Student Award, editorial board member for the journal Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, director and past president of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) Upper Midwest Chapter, general chair for the 2001 HFES Annual Meeting, member of the 2002 State of Minnesota Ergonomics Task Force, and member of the Dakota County (Minnesota) University of Minnesota Extension Committee.

Robert A. Henning is an associate professor of industrial/organizational psychology at the University of Connecticut. He holds degrees from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in psychology (BS), biomedical engineering (MS), and industrial engineering (PhD). He also received three years of postdoctoral training at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in a fellowship program administered by the National Research Council. He is a board-certified professional ergonomist. Since 2006, he has been an active researcher in the Center for the Promotion of Health in the New England Workplace where he conducts research on programs
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