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E-raamat: Viruses in Food and Water: Risks, Surveillance and Control

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Food, biomedical, and environmental scientists, most from Europe and North America, introduce food and environmental virology then cover the detection, surveillance, and risk assessment of viruses in food and water; virus transmission routes and control of food and water contamination; and particular pathogens and future directions. Among the specific topics are the prevalence of viruses in food and the environment, tracing the sources of outbreaks of foodborne and waterborne viral disease and investigating the outbreak using molecular methods, inactivating food-borne virus by thermal and non-thermal processes, advances in understanding the hepatitis A virus as a food-borne and waterborne pathogen and progress with vaccine development, and the impact of climate change and weather variability on viral pathogens in food and water. Annotation ©2013 Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com)

Viruses can be highly infectious and can cause widespread disease outbreaks. The dangers of viral pathogens in food and waterborne illness are increasingly being recognized and viruses transferred by these vectors are currently important areas of research. The editor and contributors review the risks, surveillance and control of food and waterborne viral disease. The first section acts as an introduction to food and environmental virology while chapters in parts two and three then explore virus detection, surveillance, risk assessment and the latest understanding of virus transmission routes and methods for virus control. The conclusion discusses recent advances and possible future developments, focusing on vaccine development and emerging viruses.
Contributor contact details xiii
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xix
Part I An introduction to food and environmental virology
1(46)
1 An introduction to food- and waterborne viral disease
3(16)
N. Cook
G. P. Richards
1.1 Introduction to enteric viruses
3(2)
1.2 Food and water as vehicles of virus transmission
5(1)
1.3 Outbreaks of food- and waterborne viral illness
6(3)
1.4 Virus detection
9(1)
1.5 Control of virus contamination of food and water
10(1)
1.6 References
11(8)
2 Prevalence of viruses in food and the environment
19(28)
T. Petrovic
2.1 Introduction
19(2)
2.2 The prevalence of virus contamination in food and water
21(14)
2.3 Gaps in current knowledge
35(2)
2.4 Conclusion and future trends
37(3)
2.5 Acknowledgements
40(1)
2.6 References
40(7)
Part II Detection, surveillance and risk assessment of viruses in food and water
47(130)
3 Molecular detection of viruses in foods and food-processing environments
49(30)
D. Rodriguez-Lazaro
K. Kovac
M. Hernandez
3.1 Introduction
49(1)
3.2 Molecular detection of viruses in foods: the process
50(10)
3.3 Current issues in molecular detection of viruses in foods
60(8)
3.4 Conclusion
68(1)
3.5 References
69(10)
4 Sampling strategies for virus detection in foods, food-processing environments, water and air
79(18)
A. Rzezutka
A. Carducci
4.1 Introduction
79(1)
4.2 Virus monitoring at different levels of the food supply chain
80(4)
4.3 The significance of water, air and surface sampling during food chain monitoring
84(3)
4.4 Sampling strategy in relation to food- and waterborne outbreaks
87(3)
4.5 Conclusion
90(1)
4.6 Sources of further information and advice
91(1)
4.7 References
91(5)
4.8 Appendix: sampling from food and air
96(1)
5 Molecular detection of viruses in water and sewage
97(29)
G. La Rosa
M. Muscillo
5.1 Introduction
97(1)
5.2 Sample treatment: adsorption-elution methods
98(6)
5.3 Sample treatment: ultrafiltration and ultracentrifugation
104(2)
5.4 Key assays for virus detection
106(4)
5.5 Advantages and disadvantages of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and related methods
110(3)
5.6 Current applications and results
113(3)
5.7 References
116(10)
6 Quality control in the analytical laboratory: analysing food- and waterborne viruses
126(13)
M. S. D'Agostino
6.1 Introduction
126(3)
6.2 Controls for the sample treatment step
129(2)
6.3 Controls for the nucleic acid extraction step
131(1)
6.4 Controls for the amplification step
131(4)
6.5 Additional recommended controls
135(1)
6.6 Reference materials
136(1)
6.7 Conclusion
136(1)
6.8 References
137(2)
7 Tracing the sources of outbreaks of food- and waterborne viral disease and outbreak investigation using molecular methods
139(20)
M. B. Taylor
7.1 Introduction
139(2)
7.2 Challenges in food- and waterborne outbreak tracing and investigation
141(1)
7.3 Microbial source tracking
141(3)
7.4 Molecular-based source tracking
144(2)
7.5 Molecular tracing in outbreaks
146(4)
7.6 Conclusion
150(1)
7.7 References
151(8)
8 Quantitative risk assessment for food- and waterborne viruses
159(18)
A. M. de Roda Husman
M. Bouwknegt
8.1 Introduction
159(2)
8.2 Quantitative microbiological risk assessments (QMRAs) and their outcomes
161(3)
8.3 Data gaps and needs
164(6)
8.4 Future trends
170(1)
8.5 Conclusion
171(1)
8.6 References
172(5)
Part III Virus transmission routes and control of food and water contamination
177(140)
9 Natural persistence of food- and waterborne viruses
179(26)
P. Vasickova
K. Kovarcik
9.1 Introduction
179(2)
9.2 Methods for studying persistence
181(5)
9.3 General factors affecting the natural persistence of viruses
186(3)
9.4 Persistence in aquatic environments
189(2)
9.5 Persistence in soils
191(2)
9.6 Persistence on food-related surfaces
193(3)
9.7 Persistence in food
196(2)
9.8 Acknowledgement
198(1)
9.9 References
198(7)
10 Occurrence and transmission of food- and waterborne viruses by fomites
205(12)
C. P. Gerba
10.1 Introduction: the role of fomites in virus transmission
205(1)
10.2 Occurrence and survival of viruses on fomites
206(4)
10.3 Virus transfer and modeling transmission
210(3)
10.4 Disinfection and other interventions to prevent fomite transmission
213(1)
10.5 Future trends
214(1)
10.6 References
214(3)
11 Viral contamination by food handlers and recommended procedural controls
217(20)
I. L. A. Boxman
11.1 Introduction
217(1)
11.2 Role of food handlers in virus transmission
218(2)
11.3 Current knowledge and hygiene practices among food handlers
220(2)
11.4 Guidance documents on food hygiene
222(2)
11.5 Guidelines on the application of general principles of food hygiene to the control of viruses in food
224(5)
11.6 Designing Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) with the viruses NoV and HAV in mind
229(2)
11.7 Conclusion and future trends
231(1)
11.8 Acknowledgement
232(1)
11.9 References
232(5)
12 Foodborne virus inactivation by thermal and non-thermal processes
237(24)
L. Baert
12.1 Introduction
237(1)
12.2 Thermal processes
238(4)
12.3 Non-thermal processes
242(7)
12.4 Appropriateness of surrogates
249(4)
12.5 Future trends
253(1)
12.6 Sources of further information and advice
254(1)
12.7 References
254(7)
13 Preventing and controlling viral contamination of fresh produce
261(20)
S. Bidawid
13.1 Introduction: why food contamination occurs
261(2)
13.2 Contamination of produce
263(4)
13.3 Attachment, adsorption and internalization
267(1)
13.4 Prevention
268(1)
13.5 Recommendations
269(2)
13.6 Additional intervention strategies
271(1)
13.7 Future trends
272(1)
13.8 Sources of further information and advice
272(1)
13.9 References
273(8)
14 Preventing and controlling viral contamination of shellfish
281(12)
J. W. Woods
W. Burkhardt
14.1 Introduction
281(1)
14.2 Human enteric viruses in the environment
282(1)
14.3 Enteric viruses in sewage and shellfish
283(1)
14.4 Survival of enteric viruses in the environment
284(2)
14.5 Mitigation strategies and depuration
286(1)
14.6 Current regulations
287(2)
14.7 Conclusion
289(1)
14.8 References
289(4)
15 Viral presence in waste water and sewage and control methods
293(24)
C. P. Gerba
M. Kitajima
B. Iker
15.1 Introduction: virus occurrence in wastewater
293(7)
15.2 Natural treatment systems
300(6)
15.3 Disinfection of wastewaters
306(4)
15.4 Future trends
310(1)
15.5 References
311(6)
Part IV Particular pathogens and future directions
317(194)
16 Advances in understanding of norovirus as a food- and waterborne pathogen and progress with vaccine development
319(30)
D. J. Allen
M. Iturriza-Gomara
D. W. G. Brown
16.1 Introduction
320(1)
16.2 Norovirus virology and clinical manifestations
321(3)
16.3 Susceptibility, immunity and diagnosis
324(4)
16.4 Epidemiology of norovirus gastroenteritis associated with food, water and the environment
328(7)
16.5 Prevention and control
335(2)
16.6 Conclusion
337(1)
16.7 References
338(11)
17 Advances in understanding of hepatitis A virus as a food- and waterborne pathogen and progress with vaccine development
349(13)
R.M. Pinto
A. Bosch
17.1 Introduction: hepatitis A infection
349(1)
17.2 Susceptibility in different sectors of the population
350(1)
17.3 Highly effective vaccines for hepatitis A prevention
351(1)
17.4 Risk assessment and risk management in water and food
351(1)
17.5 Unique properties of hepatitis A virus
352(3)
17.6 Quasispecies dynamics of evolution and virus fitness
355(1)
17.7 Conclusion
356(1)
17.8 References
357(5)
18 Advances in understanding of rotaviruses as food- and waterborne pathogens and progress with vaccine development
362(39)
F. M. Ruggeri
L. Fiore
18.1 Introduction
362(1)
18.2 Background
363(3)
18.3 Clinical manifestation
366(5)
18.4 Rotavirus detection in different samples
371(4)
18.5 Epidemic outbreaks
375(2)
18.6 Zoonotic transmission
377(5)
18.7 Future trends
382(1)
18.8 References
383(18)
19 Advances in understanding of hepatitis E virus as a food- and waterborne pathogen
401(41)
W. H. M. Van Der Poel
A. Berto
19.1 Introduction
401(7)
19.2 Viral proteins
408(2)
19.3 Hepatitis E virus replication, pathogenesis and clinical symptoms
410(5)
19.4 Susceptibility and effects in different sectors of the population
415(2)
19.5 Epidemiology of hepatitis E virus
417(6)
19.6 Hepatitis E virus stability and inactivation
423(4)
19.7 Diagnostic procedures
427(2)
19.8 Hepatitis E virus prevention and control
429(3)
19.9 References
432(10)
20 Epidemiology, control, and prevention of emerging zoonotic viruses
442(16)
R. Santos
S. Monteiro
20.1 Introduction
442(1)
20.2 Emerging viruses: geographical factors
443(3)
20.3 Clinical manifestations of some emerging types
446(6)
20.4 Possible control measures
452(1)
20.5 Conclusion
453(1)
20.6 References
453(5)
21 Impact of climate change and weather variability on viral pathogens in food and water
458(25)
C-H. von Bonsdorff
L. Maunula
21.1 Introduction
458(1)
21.2 Viruses of concern
459(4)
21.3 Impact of short-term climate changes
463(6)
21.4 Impact of long-term climate changes
469(7)
21.5 Conclusion
476(1)
21.6 References
477(6)
22 Virus indicators for food and water
483(28)
R. Girones
S. Bofill-Mas
22.1 Introduction
483(1)
22.2 Usage and definition of viral indicators
484(4)
22.3 Viruses proposed as indicators
488(8)
22.4 Viruses as microbial source-tracking (MST) tools
496(4)
22.5 Future trends
500(2)
22.6 References
502(9)
Index 511
Nigel Cook is a senior microbiologist at The Food and Environment Research Agency (FERA) in the UK.
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