|
|
xv | |
|
|
xxvii | |
Preface |
|
xxxi | |
Contributors |
|
xxxv | |
|
1 Visual Cryptography from Halftone Error Diffusion |
|
|
1 | (30) |
|
|
|
|
|
2 | (3) |
|
1.1.1 Visual Cryptography |
|
|
2 | (1) |
|
1.1.2 Halftone Visual Cryptography |
|
|
3 | (1) |
|
1.1.3 Blue Noise Error Diffusion |
|
|
3 | (2) |
|
1.2 Visual Secret Sharing |
|
|
5 | (4) |
|
1.2.1 Notion and Formal Definitions |
|
|
5 | (3) |
|
1.2.2 Construction of VSS Scheme |
|
|
8 | (1) |
|
1.3 Halftone VSS Construction Using Error Diffusion |
|
|
9 | (7) |
|
|
9 | (2) |
|
1.3.2 Distribution of SIPs and ABPs |
|
|
11 | (3) |
|
1.3.3 Generation of Halftone Shares via Error Diffusion |
|
|
14 | (2) |
|
1.4 Halftone VSS Construction Using Parallel Error Diffusion |
|
|
16 | (1) |
|
1.5 Quality of Halftone Shares |
|
|
17 | (2) |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
1.6.1 Improvement of Image Quality |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
1.6.2 Comparison with Other Methods |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
|
20 | (6) |
|
|
26 | (1) |
|
|
27 | (4) |
|
2 Visual Cryptography for Color Images |
|
|
31 | (26) |
|
|
|
|
|
32 | (1) |
|
|
32 | (8) |
|
2.2.1 Color Vision and Color Models |
|
|
32 | (5) |
|
|
37 | (1) |
|
2.2.3 The Darkening Problem |
|
|
38 | (1) |
|
2.2.4 The Annihilator Color |
|
|
39 | (1) |
|
|
39 | (1) |
|
2.3 Formal Models for Colored VCS |
|
|
40 | (4) |
|
2.3.1 The Models for B&W-VC |
|
|
40 | (1) |
|
2.3.2 The Models for Color-VC |
|
|
40 | (3) |
|
2.3.3 The SC, ND, and General Models |
|
|
43 | (1) |
|
|
44 | (1) |
|
2.4 Schemes for the SC Model |
|
|
44 | (6) |
|
|
45 | (2) |
|
|
47 | (1) |
|
2.4.3 The KY and YL Schemes |
|
|
47 | (1) |
|
2.4.4 The CDD Schemes and a Lower Bound |
|
|
48 | (2) |
|
2.5 Schemes for the ND Model |
|
|
50 | (2) |
|
2.6 Schemes for the General Model |
|
|
52 | (2) |
|
2.6.1 (2, 2)-Threshold Schemes |
|
|
52 | (2) |
|
2.6.2 The (2, n)-Threshold AS Schemes |
|
|
54 | (1) |
|
|
54 | (1) |
|
|
55 | (1) |
|
|
56 | (1) |
|
3 Visual Cryptography for Multiple Secrets |
|
|
57 | (38) |
|
|
|
57 | (2) |
|
3.2 Naor and Shamir's Basic Visual Secret Sharing Scheme |
|
|
59 | (3) |
|
3.3 Visual Two-Secret Sharing Schemes |
|
|
62 | (6) |
|
3.3.1 Wu and Chen's Scheme |
|
|
62 | (2) |
|
3.3.2 Wu and Chang's Scheme |
|
|
64 | (4) |
|
3.4 Visual Multiple-Secret Sharing Schemes |
|
|
68 | (23) |
|
3.4.1 Shyu et al.'s Scheme |
|
|
68 | (1) |
|
3.4.1.1 Informal Description |
|
|
68 | (1) |
|
3.4.1.2 Encoding Circle Share A |
|
|
69 | (2) |
|
3.4.1.3 Encoding Circle Share B |
|
|
71 | (9) |
|
3.4.1.4 General Algorithm |
|
|
80 | (3) |
|
3.4.2 Feng et al.'s Scheme |
|
|
83 | (2) |
|
3.4.3 Experimental Results |
|
|
85 | (2) |
|
3.4.4 Comparison and Discussions |
|
|
87 | (4) |
|
|
91 | (1) |
|
|
92 | (3) |
|
4 Extended Visual Cryptography for Photograph Images |
|
|
95 | (32) |
|
|
|
96 | (1) |
|
4.2 Basic Visual Cryptography Schemes |
|
|
96 | (7) |
|
4.2.1 (k, n) Visual Secret Sharing Schemes |
|
|
96 | (3) |
|
4.2.2 Extended Visual Cryptography Scheme |
|
|
99 | (2) |
|
|
101 | (2) |
|
4.3 Fundamentals of Photograph Visual Cryptography |
|
|
103 | (6) |
|
|
103 | (3) |
|
4.3.2 Image Quality and Related Parameters |
|
|
106 | (1) |
|
4.3.3 Photograph Visual Cryptography with Basic Schemes |
|
|
107 | (2) |
|
4.4 Variations of Photograph Visual Cryptography |
|
|
109 | (7) |
|
4.4.1 Approaches to Photograph Visual Cryptography |
|
|
109 | (2) |
|
4.4.2 Random-Dot Shadow Images |
|
|
111 | (1) |
|
4.4.3 Similar Shadow Images |
|
|
111 | (1) |
|
4.4.4 Positive and Negative Shadow Images |
|
|
112 | (1) |
|
4.4.5 Error and Secret Diffusion |
|
|
113 | (1) |
|
4.4.6 Simultaneous Iterative Search |
|
|
114 | (1) |
|
|
114 | (1) |
|
4.4.8 Continuous-Tone Subpixel |
|
|
115 | (1) |
|
4.5 Misalignment-Tolerant Photograph Visual Cryptography |
|
|
116 | (4) |
|
4.5.1 Theory and Implementation |
|
|
116 | (4) |
|
|
120 | (1) |
|
|
120 | (3) |
|
|
123 | (4) |
|
5 Probabilistic Visual Cryptography Schemes |
|
|
127 | (28) |
|
|
|
|
|
127 | (2) |
|
5.2 Visual Cryptography Schemes |
|
|
129 | (4) |
|
5.2.1 The Deterministic Model |
|
|
129 | (2) |
|
5.2.2 The Probabilistic Model |
|
|
131 | (2) |
|
5.3 Canonical Probabilistic Schemes |
|
|
133 | (2) |
|
5.4 Probabilistic Schemes with No Pixel Expansion |
|
|
135 | (3) |
|
5.5 Trading Pixel Expansion with Probabilities |
|
|
138 | (4) |
|
5.5.1 Probabilistic Schemes with Given Pixel Expansion |
|
|
138 | (4) |
|
5.6 Constructing Probabilistic Schemes |
|
|
142 | (5) |
|
5.6.1 (n, n)-Threshold Probabilistic Schemes with Any Pixel Expansion |
|
|
142 | (2) |
|
5.6.2 (2, n)-Threshold Probabilistic Schemes with Any Pixel Expansion |
|
|
144 | (3) |
|
5.7 Probabilistic Schemes with Boolean Operations |
|
|
147 | (3) |
|
5.7.1 (2,n) Scheme for Binary Images (Wang) |
|
|
147 | (2) |
|
5.7.2 (n,n) Scheme for Binary Images (Wang) |
|
|
149 | (1) |
|
5.8 Conclusions and Open Problems |
|
|
150 | (1) |
|
|
151 | (4) |
|
6 XOR-Based Visual Cryptography |
|
|
155 | (30) |
|
|
|
|
155 | (1) |
|
|
156 | (2) |
|
6.3 Visual Cryptography Scheme Using the Polarization of Light |
|
|
158 | (10) |
|
|
158 | (1) |
|
|
159 | (1) |
|
|
159 | (9) |
|
6.4 Visual Cryptography Scheme with Reversing |
|
|
168 | (6) |
|
6.4.1 (k, n) VC Scheme Using Cyclic-Shift Operation |
|
|
168 | (3) |
|
6.4.2 A Scheme for General Access Structure |
|
|
171 | (3) |
|
6.5 Secret Sharing Scheme Using Boolean Operation |
|
|
174 | (7) |
|
|
175 | (1) |
|
|
176 | (2) |
|
|
178 | (3) |
|
|
181 | (1) |
|
|
181 | (4) |
|
7 Visual Cryptography and Random Grids |
|
|
185 | (38) |
|
|
|
185 | (1) |
|
|
186 | (3) |
|
7.2.1 Random Pixel, Random Grid, and Average Light Transmission |
|
|
186 | (1) |
|
7.2.2 Superimposition of Random Grids |
|
|
187 | (2) |
|
7.3 Visual Cryptograms of Random Grids |
|
|
189 | (30) |
|
|
189 | (1) |
|
7.3.2 (2, 2)-VCRG Algorithms for Binary Images |
|
|
190 | (3) |
|
7.3.3 Experiments for (2, 2)-VCRG |
|
|
193 | (1) |
|
7.3.4 Definition of Light Contrast and Performance Evaluation |
|
|
194 | (2) |
|
7.3.5 Algorithms of (n, n)-VCRG for Binary Images |
|
|
196 | (10) |
|
7.3.6 Algorithms of (n, n)-VCRG for Gray-Level and Color Images |
|
|
206 | (1) |
|
7.3.7 Experiments for (n, n)-VCRG |
|
|
207 | (12) |
|
|
219 | (1) |
|
|
220 | (3) |
|
8 Visual Cryptography and Contrast Bounds |
|
|
223 | (32) |
|
|
|
223 | (2) |
|
|
225 | (2) |
|
8.3 Approximate Inclusion Exclusion |
|
|
227 | (5) |
|
|
232 | (4) |
|
8.5 Optimal 3-out-of-n Schemes |
|
|
236 | (5) |
|
8.6 Asymptotic Optimal k-out-of-n Schemes |
|
|
241 | (3) |
|
8.7 Contrast Trade-Offs for Extended Visual Cryptography Schemes |
|
|
244 | (7) |
|
8.8 Enhancing the Contrast by Nonstandard Models |
|
|
251 | (1) |
|
|
251 | (1) |
|
|
252 | (3) |
|
9 Visual Cryptography Schemes with Reversing |
|
|
255 | (26) |
|
|
|
|
|
255 | (3) |
|
9.2 Visual Cryptography Schemes |
|
|
258 | (4) |
|
9.2.1 (k, k)-Threshold Visual Cryptography Schemes |
|
|
259 | (1) |
|
9.2.2 Perfect Black Visual Cryptography Schemes |
|
|
260 | (2) |
|
9.3 Almost Ideal Contrast VCS with Reversing |
|
|
262 | (3) |
|
9.4 Ideal Contrast VCS with Reversing |
|
|
265 | (13) |
|
9.4.1 A Construction Using a Binary Secret Sharing Scheme |
|
|
266 | (2) |
|
9.4.2 Constructions Using Perfect Black VCSs |
|
|
268 | (1) |
|
9.4.2.1 The Scheme by Cimato, De Santis, Ferrara, and Masucci |
|
|
269 | (2) |
|
9.4.2.2 The Scheme by Hu and Tzeng |
|
|
271 | (3) |
|
9.4.2.3 The Scheme by Yang, Wang, and Chen |
|
|
274 | (2) |
|
|
276 | (1) |
|
9.4.3 A Construction Using a Nonperfect Black VCS |
|
|
276 | (2) |
|
|
278 | (1) |
|
|
278 | (3) |
|
10 Cheating Prevention in Visual Cryptography |
|
|
281 | (16) |
|
|
|
|
|
281 | (1) |
|
|
282 | (5) |
|
10.2.1 Visual Cryptography |
|
|
282 | (3) |
|
|
285 | (2) |
|
10.3 Cheating Prevention Schemes |
|
|
287 | (7) |
|
|
287 | (2) |
|
|
289 | (1) |
|
|
290 | (2) |
|
|
292 | (2) |
|
10.4 Analysis of Cheating Prevention Schemes |
|
|
294 | (1) |
|
|
295 | (1) |
|
|
295 | (2) |
|
11 Resolving the Alignment Problem in Visual Cryptography |
|
|
297 | (32) |
|
|
|
297 | (2) |
|
|
299 | (3) |
|
11.3 Misalignment with Integer Number of Subpixels |
|
|
302 | (7) |
|
11.4 Misalignment with Less Than One Subpixel |
|
|
309 | (10) |
|
11.4.1 Shares with Slightly Misalignment Can Still Recover the Secret Image |
|
|
310 | (6) |
|
11.4.2 Large Subpixels Have Better Misalignment Tolerance |
|
|
316 | (3) |
|
11.5 A Misalignment Tolerant VCS |
|
|
319 | (6) |
|
|
319 | (3) |
|
|
322 | (3) |
|
11.6 Conclusions and Discussions |
|
|
325 | (1) |
|
|
325 | (1) |
|
|
325 | (4) |
|
12 Applications of Visual Cryptography |
|
|
329 | (22) |
|
|
|
|
329 | (4) |
|
12.2 Trojan-Secure Confirmation of Transactions |
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
12.3 Trojan-Secure Authentication Using a PIN |
|
|
334 | (5) |
|
12.4 Security versus Multiple Use |
|
|
339 | (4) |
|
|
343 | (3) |
|
12.6 Technical Problems Concerning Adjustment and Parallaxes |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
12.7 Voting with a Receipt Based on visual cryptography |
|
|
347 | (2) |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
|
349 | (2) |
|
13 Steganography in Halftone Images |
|
|
351 | (30) |
|
|
|
|
|
351 | (1) |
|
13.2 A Review of Error Diffusion |
|
|
352 | (4) |
|
13.3 Data Hiding by Stochastic Error Diffusion (DHSED) |
|
|
356 | (3) |
|
13.4 Data Hiding by Conjugate Error Diffusion (DHCED) |
|
|
359 | (4) |
|
13.5 Performance Analysis |
|
|
363 | (14) |
|
|
377 | (2) |
|
|
379 | (2) |
|
|
381 | (22) |
|
|
|
|
|
381 | (3) |
|
|
384 | (5) |
|
14.3 Approaches for Image Sharing |
|
|
389 | (8) |
|
14.3.1 Shamir's Secret Sharing Scheme |
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
14.3.2 Color Image Sharing Based on the Lagrange Interpolation |
|
|
389 | (3) |
|
14.3.3 Color Image Sharing Based on Moving Lines |
|
|
392 | (4) |
|
14.3.4 Improved Algorithm |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
14.4 Experiment and Evaluation |
|
|
397 | (2) |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
|
400 | (3) |
|
15 Polynomial-Based Image Sharing |
|
|
403 | (22) |
|
|
|
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
15.2 Polynomial-Based Sharing Scheme |
|
|
405 | (2) |
|
15.2.1 Shamir's Secret Sharing Scheme |
|
|
405 | (1) |
|
15.2.2 Lagrange Interpolation Scheme |
|
|
406 | (1) |
|
15.3 Preliminaries and Related Works |
|
|
407 | (5) |
|
|
407 | (1) |
|
|
407 | (2) |
|
15.3.3 Yang et al.'s Scheme |
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
15.3.4 Inverted Pattern LSB Scheme |
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
15.3.5 Scalable Secret Image Sharing |
|
|
410 | (2) |
|
15.4 Wang et al.'s Scheme |
|
|
412 | (6) |
|
15.4.1 Secret Image Sharing |
|
|
412 | (2) |
|
15.4.2 Set-Up Authentication |
|
|
414 | (2) |
|
|
416 | (2) |
|
15.5 Experimental Results |
|
|
418 | (5) |
|
|
418 | (1) |
|
15.5.2 Evaluating Authentication |
|
|
419 | (4) |
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
|
423 | (2) |
|
16 Image Sharing with Steganography and Authentication |
|
|
425 | (38) |
|
|
|
|
|
425 | (3) |
|
|
428 | (6) |
|
16.2.1 Lin and Tsai's Scheme |
|
|
428 | (2) |
|
16.2.2 Yang et al.'s Scheme |
|
|
430 | (2) |
|
16.2.3 Chang et al.'s Scheme |
|
|
432 | (2) |
|
16.3 Adopted Techniques in the Proposed Scheme |
|
|
434 | (11) |
|
16.3.1 Error Diffusion Technique |
|
|
434 | (5) |
|
16.3.2 Interpolation Technique |
|
|
439 | (1) |
|
16.3.3 Canny Edge Detector |
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
16.3.4 Edge Lookup Inverse Halftoning Technique |
|
|
441 | (2) |
|
16.3.5 Shamir Scheme for Secret Sharing |
|
|
443 | (2) |
|
|
445 | (8) |
|
16.4.1 Sharing and Embedding Phase |
|
|
445 | (4) |
|
16.4.2 Reconstruction and Verifying Phase |
|
|
449 | (4) |
|
16.5 Experimental Results |
|
|
453 | (5) |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
|
459 | (4) |
|
17 Two-Decoding-Option Image Sharing Method |
|
|
463 | (24) |
|
|
|
|
|
463 | (2) |
|
|
465 | (3) |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
466 | (2) |
|
|
468 | (2) |
|
17.3.1 Jin et al.'s TiOISSS |
|
|
468 | (1) |
|
17.3.2 Lin and Lin's TiOISSS |
|
|
468 | (2) |
|
17.4 A New (k, n)-TiOISSS |
|
|
470 | (8) |
|
|
471 | (2) |
|
17.4.2 The Lossless TiOISSS |
|
|
473 | (5) |
|
17.5 Experimental Results and Comparisons |
|
|
478 | (3) |
|
|
481 | (3) |
|
|
484 | (3) |
Index |
|
487 | |