| Preface |
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xxi | |
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xxxi | |
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1 Perspectives in Cytometry |
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1 | (24) |
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1 | (1) |
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2 | (2) |
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2 | (1) |
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1.2.2 Slide-Based Cytometry |
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3 | (1) |
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4 | (1) |
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1.4 Cytometry -- State of the Art |
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5 | (2) |
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1.4.1 Multiparametric Analyses |
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6 | (1) |
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7 | (9) |
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1.5.1 New Technologies and Methods |
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10 | (1) |
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1.5.1.1 Sequential Analyses |
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11 | (1) |
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1.5.1.2 Spectral Analyses |
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11 | (1) |
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1.5.1.3 Fluorescence Modifications for Analyses |
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12 | (1) |
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1.5.1.4 Label-Free Analyses |
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13 | (1) |
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14 | (1) |
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1.5.3 Cytometry -- the Other Side |
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15 | (1) |
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16 | (9) |
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16 | (9) |
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2 Novel Concepts and Requirements in Cytometry |
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25 | (10) |
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25 | (1) |
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2.2 Fluorescence Microscopy |
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25 | (2) |
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25 | (1) |
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26 | (1) |
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27 | (1) |
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2.3 Fluorescence Reader Systems |
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27 | (3) |
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2.3.1 Cell-Based Fluorescence Screening |
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27 | (1) |
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2.3.2 TIR Fluorescence Reader |
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28 | (2) |
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2.4 Microfluidics Based on Optical Tweezers |
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30 | (1) |
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30 | (5) |
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31 | (1) |
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31 | (4) |
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3 Optical Imaging of Cells with Gold Nanoparticle Clusters as Light Scattering Contrast Agents: A Finite-Difference Time-Domain Approach to the Modeling of Flow Cytometry Configurations |
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35 | (28) |
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35 | (2) |
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3.2 Fundamentals of the FDTD Method |
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37 | (8) |
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3.2.1 The Basic FDTD Numerical Scheme |
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37 | (2) |
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3.2.2 Input Wave Excitation |
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39 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Uniaxial Perfectly Matched Layer Absorbing Boundary Conditions |
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39 | (1) |
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3.2.4 FDTD Formulation of the Light Scattering Properties from Single Cells |
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40 | (2) |
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3.2.5 FDTD Formulation of Optical Phase Contrast Microscopic (OPCM) Imaging |
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42 | (3) |
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3.3 FDTD Simulation Results of Light Scattering Patterns from Single Cells |
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45 | (2) |
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3.3.1 Effect of Extracellular Medium Absorption on the Light Scattering Patterns |
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45 | (2) |
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3.4 FDTD OPCM Nanobioimaging Simulation Results |
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47 | (10) |
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47 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Optical Clearing Effect |
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47 | (1) |
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3.4.3 The Cell Imaging Effect of Gold Nanoparticles |
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48 | (2) |
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3.4.3.1 A Cell with a Cluster of Gold Nanoparticles Located in the Cytoplasm |
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50 | (2) |
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3.4.3.2 A Cell with a Cluster of Gold Nanoparticles Randomly Distributed on the Surface of its Nucleus |
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52 | (5) |
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57 | (6) |
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59 | (1) |
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59 | (4) |
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4 Optics of White Blood Cells: Optical Models, Simulations, and Experiments |
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63 | (32) |
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63 | (2) |
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63 | (1) |
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4.1.2 Particle Identification and Characterization |
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63 | (1) |
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4.1.3 Experimental Techniques |
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64 | (1) |
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4.2 Optical Models of White Blood Cells |
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65 | (4) |
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4.2.1 Confocal Imaging of White Blood Cells |
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65 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Optical Models of Mononuclear Cells |
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65 | (2) |
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4.2.3 Optical Models of Granular Cells |
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67 | (1) |
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4.2.4 Refractive Indices of White Blood Cells and their Organelles |
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68 | (1) |
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4.3 Direct and Inverse Light-Scattering Problems for White Blood Cells |
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69 | (9) |
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4.3.1 Simulation of Light Scattering by Mononuclear Cells |
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69 | (1) |
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4.3.2 Simulation of Light Scattering by Granular Cells |
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70 | (1) |
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4.3.2.1 Granulocyte Model Without Nucleus |
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70 | (2) |
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4.3.2.2 Approximate Theories |
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72 | (1) |
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4.3.2.3 Neutrophil Model with Nucleus |
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72 | (1) |
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4.3.3 Inverse Light-Scattering Problem for Mononuclear Cells |
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73 | (1) |
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4.3.3.1 Global Optimization |
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74 | (1) |
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4.3.3.2 Errors of Parameter Estimates |
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74 | (2) |
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4.3.3.3 Theoretical Tests Based on More Complicated Model |
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76 | (1) |
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4.3.3.4 Sample Characterization |
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77 | (1) |
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4.4 Experimental Measurement of Light Scattering by White Blood Cells |
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78 | (11) |
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4.4.1 Scanning Flow Cytometer |
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78 | (1) |
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4.4.1.1 The Current State of the Art of the SFC |
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79 | (1) |
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4.4.1.2 Mueller Matrix of the SFC |
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80 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Differential Scattering Cross Section of White Blood Cells |
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81 | (1) |
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4.4.3 Measurement of Light Scattering of Mononuclear Cells |
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82 | (2) |
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4.4.4 Characterization of Mononuclear Cells from Light Scattering |
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84 | (3) |
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4.4.5 Measurement of Light Scattering of Granular Cells |
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87 | (2) |
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89 | (6) |
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90 | (1) |
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90 | (5) |
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5 Optical Properties of Flowing Blood Cells |
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95 | (38) |
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95 | (1) |
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96 | (4) |
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96 | (2) |
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5.2.2 Clinical Parameters |
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98 | (1) |
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5.2.3 Physiological Conditions |
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99 | (1) |
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5.3 Complex Refractive Index of Hemoglobin |
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100 | (2) |
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5.4 Light Propagation in Turbid Media |
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102 | (2) |
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5.4.1 Monte Carlo Simulation |
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104 | (1) |
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5.5 Method for the Determination of Optical Properties of Turbid Media |
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104 | (5) |
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5.5.1 Integrating Sphere Measurements |
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104 | (2) |
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5.5.2 Principle of Inverse Monte Carlo Simulation |
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106 | (1) |
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5.5.3 Possibility of Determining the Intrinsic Parameters |
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107 | (1) |
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5.5.4 Preparation of the Blood Samples |
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108 | (1) |
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108 | (1) |
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108 | (1) |
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109 | (1) |
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5.6 Optical Properties of Red Blood Cells |
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109 | (13) |
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5.6.1 Standard Red Blood Cells |
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110 | (2) |
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5.6.2 Optical Parameters of Red Blood Cells Dependent on Hematocrit |
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112 | (3) |
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5.6.3 Influence of Oxygen Saturation |
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115 | (2) |
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5.6.4 Influence of Shear Rate |
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117 | (1) |
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5.6.4.1 Shear Rate Range 0--200 s--1 |
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118 | (1) |
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5.6.4.2 Shear Rate Range 200--600 s--1 |
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119 | (1) |
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5.6.4.3 Shear Rates at 1000 s--1 |
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119 | (1) |
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5.6.5 Influence of Osmolarity |
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119 | (3) |
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5.7 Optical Properties of Plasma |
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122 | (4) |
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5.7.1 Influence of the Surrounding Medium on Red Blood Cells |
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124 | (2) |
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5.8 Optical Properties of Platelets |
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126 | (1) |
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5.9 Comparison of Optical Influences Induced by Physiological Blood Parameters |
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127 | (2) |
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129 | (4) |
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129 | (1) |
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129 | (4) |
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6 Laser Diffraction by the Erythrocytes and Deformability Measurements |
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133 | (22) |
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133 | (1) |
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6.2 Parameters of the Erythrocytes |
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134 | (1) |
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6.3 Parameters of the Ektacytometer |
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135 | (1) |
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6.4 Light Scattering by a Large Optically Soft Particle |
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136 | (2) |
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6.5 Fraunhofer Diffraction |
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138 | (2) |
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6.6 Light Scattering by a Transparent Elliptical Disc |
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140 | (3) |
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6.7 Light Scattering by an Elliptical Disc with Arbitrary Coordinates of the Disc Center |
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143 | (1) |
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6.8 Light Diffraction by an Ensemble of Particles |
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144 | (1) |
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6.9 Light Diffraction by Particles with Random Coordinates |
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145 | (1) |
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6.10 Light Scattering by Particles with Regular Coordinates |
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146 | (1) |
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6.11 Description of the Experimental Setup |
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147 | (2) |
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6.12 Sample Preparation Procedure |
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149 | (1) |
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6.13 Examples of Experimental Assessment of Erythrocyte Deformability in Norm and Pathology |
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150 | (3) |
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153 | (2) |
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153 | (2) |
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7 Characterization of Red Blood Cells' Rheological and Physiological State Using Optical Flicker Spectroscopy |
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155 | (56) |
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155 | (1) |
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7.2 Cell State-Dependent Mechanical Properties of Red Blood Cells |
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156 | (2) |
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7.3 Flicker in Erythrocytes |
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158 | (15) |
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7.3.1 Phenomenology of Cell Membrane Flickering |
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159 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Theoretical Models of Flicker |
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160 | (2) |
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7.3.2.1 Models with Various Cell Shape under Thermal Excitation |
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162 | (4) |
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166 | (5) |
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7.3.2.3 Active Excitation Mechanisms |
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171 | (2) |
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7.4 Experimental Techniques for Flicker Measurement in Blood Cells |
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173 | (14) |
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7.4.1 Measurement of Frequency Spectra of Membrane Flickering |
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173 | (1) |
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7.4.1.1 Phase Contrast and Laser Probing of Central Part of Erythrocyte Disk |
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173 | (5) |
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7.4.1.2 Point Probing of Cell Edge Fluctuations |
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178 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Quantitative Phase Imaging of Entire Cell |
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179 | (3) |
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7.4.3 Registration of Fluctuations in Cell Circumference Shape |
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182 | (1) |
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7.4.4 Fundamental Difference between the Registered Spectra and the Intrinsic Flicker Spectrum |
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183 | (4) |
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7.5 The Measured Quantities in Flicker Spectroscopy and the Cell Parameters Monitored |
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187 | (5) |
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187 | (1) |
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7.5.1.1 Disk Face Area of Erythrocyte |
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187 | (1) |
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7.5.1.2 Equatorial Contour and Rim Area |
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188 | (1) |
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189 | (1) |
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7.5.2.1 Disk Face Area of Erythrocyte |
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189 | (2) |
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7.5.2.2 Equatorial Contour |
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191 | (1) |
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7.5.3 Mean Square Amplitude Distribution |
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191 | (1) |
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7.6 Flicker Spectrum Influence by Factors of Various Nature |
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192 | (9) |
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7.6.1 Ambient Physical Conditions |
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193 | (1) |
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7.6.1.1 Effect of Medium Viscosity |
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193 | (1) |
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7.6.1.2 Effect of Ambient Temperature |
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194 | (1) |
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7.6.1.3 Effect of Medium Tonicity |
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195 | (2) |
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7.6.2 Modification of Cell Mechanical Properties |
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197 | (1) |
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7.6.3 Physiologically Active Substances and Medicinal Drugs |
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198 | (2) |
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7.6.4 Erythrocyte Flicker at Human Pathologies |
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200 | (1) |
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7.7 Membrane Flicker and Erythrocyte Functioning |
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201 | (2) |
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7.8 Flicker in Other Cells |
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203 | (1) |
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204 | (7) |
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205 | (6) |
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8 Digital Holographic Microscopy for Quantitative Live Cell Imaging and Cytometry |
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211 | (28) |
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8.1 Introduction, Motivation, and Background |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (9) |
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8.2.1 DHM Setup and Imaging |
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212 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Evaluation of Digital Holograms |
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213 | (3) |
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8.2.3 Quantitative Phase Contrast Imaging and Cell Thickness Determination |
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216 | (1) |
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8.2.4 DHM Multifocus Imaging and Cell Tracking |
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217 | (4) |
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221 | (13) |
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222 | (1) |
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8.3.2 DHM Cell Thickness Measurements |
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223 | (1) |
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8.3.3 Dynamic Cell Thickness Monitoring in Toxicology |
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224 | (3) |
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8.3.4 Label-Free Detection of Apoptotic Processes |
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227 | (1) |
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8.3.5 Determination of the Integral Refractive Index of Cells in Suspension |
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228 | (4) |
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8.3.6 Identification of Subcellular Structures |
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232 | (2) |
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234 | (5) |
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234 | (1) |
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234 | (5) |
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9 Comparison of Immunophenotyping and Rare Cell Detection by Slide-Based Imaging Cytometry and Flow Cytometry |
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239 | (34) |
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239 | (8) |
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9.1.1 Cytometry of Equal Quality? |
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240 | (1) |
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9.1.2 Fluorescence Analyses |
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240 | (1) |
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9.1.2.1 Excitation and Emission of Fluorescent Dyes |
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240 | (1) |
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241 | (2) |
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9.1.2.3 Bleaching Characteristics of Dyes |
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243 | (1) |
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9.1.2.4 Fluorescent Light Detection |
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243 | (1) |
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9.1.2.5 Spillover Characteristics |
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244 | (1) |
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9.1.3 Two Ways of Cytometric Analysis |
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244 | (1) |
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244 | (2) |
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9.1.3.2 Slide-Based Cytometry |
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246 | (1) |
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9.2 Comparison of Four-Color CD4/CD8 Leukocyte Analysis by SFM and FCM Using Qdot Staining |
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247 | (3) |
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9.2.1 Analysis of Lymphocytes by SFM and FCM |
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247 | (1) |
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9.2.2 Comparison of CD4/CD8 Ratio |
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248 | (2) |
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9.3 Comparison of Leukocyte Subtyping by Multiparametric Analysis with LSC and FCM |
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250 | (6) |
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9.3.1 Different Triggering in LSC Analysis |
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250 | (4) |
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9.3.2 Immunophenotyping by FCM and LSC |
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254 | (2) |
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9.3.3 Multicolor Analyses |
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256 | (1) |
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9.4 Absolute and Relative Tumor Cell Frequency Determinations |
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256 | (6) |
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9.4.1 Comparison of Cell Counts |
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257 | (1) |
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257 | (2) |
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9.4.1.2 Rare Cell Analysis |
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259 | (1) |
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9.4.2 Analysis Documentation |
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259 | (2) |
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261 | (1) |
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9.5 Analysis of Drug-Induced Apoptosis in Leukocytes by Propidium Iodide |
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262 | (4) |
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9.5.1 Induction of Apoptosis |
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263 | (2) |
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9.5.2 Apoptosis Detection by SBC and FCM |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (7) |
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266 | (1) |
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266 | (7) |
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10 Microfluidic Flow Cytometry: Advancements toward Compact, Integrated Systems |
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273 | (38) |
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273 | (2) |
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10.1.1 Main Components of a Full-Scale Flow Cytometer |
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273 | (1) |
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10.1.1.1 Fluidic Control System |
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273 | (1) |
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10.1.1.2 Optical Detection System |
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274 | (1) |
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274 | (1) |
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10.1.2 Microfluidic Flow Cytometry |
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275 | (1) |
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10.2 On-Chip Flow Confinement |
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275 | (8) |
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10.2.1 A General Discussion of Flow Confinement Forces |
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276 | (1) |
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10.2.2 Two-Dimensional Flow Confinement |
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277 | (1) |
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10.2.3 Three-Dimensional Flow Confinement |
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278 | (5) |
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10.3 Optical Detection System |
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283 | (14) |
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10.3.1 The Many Benefits of Integrated Optics |
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283 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Developing the Tools of the Trade |
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284 | (1) |
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10.3.2.1 Light-Guiding Elements |
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284 | (2) |
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10.3.2.2 Two-Dimensional Refractive Elements |
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286 | (2) |
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10.3.2.3 Improving Quality of On-Chip Optics |
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288 | (2) |
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10.3.2.4 Light-Stopping and Reflecting Elements |
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290 | (1) |
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10.3.2.5 Spectral Separation |
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290 | (1) |
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10.3.2.6 Tunable Liquid-Core Waveguides and Lenses |
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290 | (2) |
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10.3.3 Opportunities for Significant Improvements over Bulk Optical Systems |
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292 | (5) |
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297 | (9) |
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10.4.1 Electrokinetic Sorting |
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297 | (1) |
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10.4.2 Sorting by Dielectrophoresis |
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298 | (1) |
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10.4.3 Sorting by Optical Force |
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299 | (1) |
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10.4.4 Hydrodynamic Sorting |
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300 | (1) |
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10.4.4.1 Hydrodynamic Sorting with External Check Valves |
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301 | (1) |
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10.4.4.2 Hydrodynamic Sorting with Piezoelectric Actuators |
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301 | (5) |
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306 | (5) |
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306 | (1) |
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306 | (5) |
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11 Label-Free Cell Classification with Diffraction Imaging Flow Cytometer |
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311 | (22) |
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311 | (2) |
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11.2 Modeling of Scattered Light |
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313 | (5) |
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11.2.1 The Correlation between Scattered Light Distribution and Cellular Structure |
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314 | (2) |
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11.2.2 The Formulation of Stokes Vector and Muller Matrix |
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316 | (2) |
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11.3 FDTD Simulation with 3D Cellular Structures |
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318 | (4) |
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11.3.1 The FDTD Algorithm |
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318 | (3) |
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11.3.2 Acquisition of 3D Cell Structure through Confocal Imaging |
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321 | (1) |
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11.4 Simulation and Measurement of Diffraction Images |
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322 | (5) |
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11.4.1 Numerical Results Based on FDTD Simulations |
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323 | (2) |
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11.4.2 Experimental Results Acquired with a Diffraction Imaging Flow Cytometer |
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325 | (2) |
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327 | (6) |
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328 | (1) |
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328 | (5) |
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12 An Integrative Approach for Immune Monitoring of Human Health and Disease by Advanced Flow Cytometry Methods |
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333 | (30) |
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333 | (2) |
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12.2 Optimized Protocols for Advanced Flow Cytometric Analysis of Human Samples |
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335 | (6) |
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12.2.1 Key Limitations of Current Experimental Approaches: Technical and Scientific Biases |
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335 | (1) |
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12.2.2 Developing Better Protocols for Flow Cytometry Studies of Cells from Human Subjects: Enabling Holistic Studies of Human Health and Disease |
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336 | (3) |
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12.2.3 Integrating Flow Cytometry into a Wider Framework for Experimental Research on Human Samples |
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339 | (2) |
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12.3 Reagents for Advanced Flow Cytometric Analysis of Human Samples |
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341 | (14) |
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341 | (6) |
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12.3.2 Nonantibody Probes |
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347 | (5) |
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12.3.3 Adapting Protocols to the Research Question at Hand: A Few Practical Examples |
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|
352 | (3) |
|
12.4 Conclusion: The Future of Advanced Flow Cytometry in Human Research |
|
|
355 | (8) |
|
|
|
359 | (1) |
|
|
|
359 | (1) |
|
|
|
360 | (3) |
|
13 Optical Tweezers and Cytometry |
|
|
363 | (24) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
363 | (1) |
|
13.2 Optical Tweezers: Manipulating Cells with light |
|
|
364 | (3) |
|
|
|
364 | (2) |
|
13.2.2 Experimental Considerations |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
13.3 Use of Optical Tweezers for the Measurement of Viscoelastic Parameters of Cells |
|
|
367 | (9) |
|
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
13.3.1.1 Use of Multiple Optical Traps |
|
|
369 | (3) |
|
13.3.1.2 Use of Counterpropagating light Beams |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
13.3.1.3 Use of Evanescent Wave of light |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
13.3.1.4 Use of Viscous Drag on Optically Trapped Cell |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
|
|
374 | (2) |
|
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
13.4 Cytometry with Raman Optical Tweezers |
|
|
376 | (5) |
|
13.4.1 Raman Optical Tweezers: Basics |
|
|
376 | (2) |
|
13.4.2 Cytometry Applications |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
13.4.2.1 Real-Time Study of Dynamic Processes in Single Cell |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
13.4.2.2 Identification and Sorting of Microorganism |
|
|
379 | (2) |
|
13.4.2.3 Studies on Disease Diagnosis |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
|
|
381 | (2) |
|
|
|
383 | (4) |
|
|
|
383 | (4) |
|
14 In vivo Image Flow Cytometry |
|
|
387 | (46) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
14.2 State of the Art of Intravital Microscopy |
|
|
388 | (13) |
|
14.2.1 General Requirements |
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
14.2.2 Intravital Video Microscopy (IVM) |
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
14.2.3 Fluorescent Intravital Video Microscopy (FIVM) |
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
14.2.4 Experimental Preparations for IVM: Animal Models |
|
|
390 | (2) |
|
14.2.5 Microcirculation and Cell Flow Examination |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
14.2.5.1 Microcirculation and Cell Flow |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
14.2.5.2 Light Microscopy |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
14.2.5.3 High-Resolution High-Speed Transmission Digital Microscopy (TDM) |
|
|
393 | (2) |
|
14.2.5.4 Monitoring of Cells in Lymph Flow |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
14.2.5.5 Fluorescent Image Microscopy |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
14.2.5.6 Laser Scanning Microscopy |
|
|
397 | (2) |
|
14.2.5.7 Laser Doppler Perfusion Imaging and Laser Speckle Contrast Imaging |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
14.2.5.8 Other Intravital Techniques |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
|
|
401 | (1) |
|
14.3 In vivo Lymph Flow Cytometry |
|
|
401 | (14) |
|
14.3.1 Basic Idea: Natural Cell-Focusing Phenomenon |
|
|
401 | (1) |
|
14.3.2 Animal Model and Experimental Arrangement |
|
|
402 | (4) |
|
14.3.3 Lymph Flow Velocity Measurements |
|
|
406 | (3) |
|
14.3.4 Imaging of Cells and Lymphatic Structures |
|
|
409 | (6) |
|
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
14.4 High-Resolution Single-Cell Imaging in Lymphatics |
|
|
415 | (3) |
|
14.4.1 The High-Speed TDM |
|
|
415 | (2) |
|
14.4.2 Optical Clearing for In vivo Label-Free Image Cytometry |
|
|
417 | (1) |
|
14.5 In vivo Blood Flow Cytometry |
|
|
418 | (6) |
|
14.5.1 The Specificity of Blood Flow Cytometry |
|
|
418 | (3) |
|
14.5.2 The High-Speed, High-Resolution Imaging Blood Flow Cytometry |
|
|
421 | (1) |
|
14.5.3 The Limitations and Future Perspectives |
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
|
|
424 | (9) |
|
|
|
424 | (1) |
|
|
|
425 | (8) |
|
15 Instrumentation for In vivo Flow Cytometry -- a Sickle Cell Anemia Case Study |
|
|
433 | (30) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
433 | (1) |
|
|
|
434 | (1) |
|
|
|
435 | (9) |
|
15.3.1 Illumination Methods |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
15.3.1.1 Orthogonal Polarization Spectral Imaging (OPS) |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
15.3.1.2 Dark Field Epi-illumination (DFEI) |
|
|
437 | (1) |
|
15.3.1.3 Sidestream Dark Field (SSDF) Illumination |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
|
|
439 | (3) |
|
15.3.2.1 Custom-Made CMOS Sensors |
|
|
442 | (2) |
|
|
|
444 | (3) |
|
|
|
447 | (6) |
|
|
|
447 | (3) |
|
15.5.2 Comparison of Illumination Techniques (DFEI, OPS, and SSDF) |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
15.5.2.1 Proportion of "Useful" Photons |
|
|
450 | (3) |
|
15.5.2.2 Imaging Performance |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
15.6 Device Design -- Sickle Cell Anemia Imaging System |
|
|
453 | (2) |
|
15.7 Imaging Results -- Sickle Cell Anemia Imaging System |
|
|
455 | (3) |
|
15.8 Discussion and Future Directions |
|
|
458 | (5) |
|
|
|
459 | (4) |
|
16 Advances in Fluorescence-Based In vivo Flow Cytometry for Cancer Applications |
|
|
463 | (38) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
463 | (1) |
|
16.2 Background: Cancer Metastasis |
|
|
464 | (2) |
|
16.3 Clinical Relevance: Role of CTCs in Cancer Development and Response to Treatment |
|
|
466 | (2) |
|
16.3.1 Detection and Enumeration of Circulating Non-Epithelial Cancer Cells |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
|
|
468 | (6) |
|
16.4.1 Enrichment Techniques |
|
|
468 | (2) |
|
16.4.2 Detection Techniques |
|
|
470 | (4) |
|
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
16.5 In vivo Flow Cytometry (IVFC) |
|
|
474 | (3) |
|
16.6 Single-Photon IVFC (SPIVFC) |
|
|
477 | (8) |
|
16.6.1 Principles, Advantages, and Limitations |
|
|
477 | (3) |
|
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
16.6.2.1 Two-Color SPIVFC |
|
|
480 | (2) |
|
|
|
482 | (1) |
|
16.6.2.3 Retinal Flow IVFC |
|
|
482 | (1) |
|
16.6.3 Applications in Enumeration of CTCs |
|
|
483 | (2) |
|
16.7 Multiphoton IVFC (MPIVFC) |
|
|
485 | (7) |
|
16.7.1 Principles, Advantages, and Limitations |
|
|
485 | (2) |
|
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
16.7.2.1 Two-Color and Extended Laser MPIVFC |
|
|
487 | (2) |
|
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
16.7.2.3 Fiber-Based MPIVFC |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
16.7.3 Applications in Enumeration of CTCs |
|
|
490 | (2) |
|
16.8 Summary and Future Directions |
|
|
492 | (9) |
|
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
|
|
495 | (6) |
|
17 In vivo Photothermal and Photoacoustic Flow Cytometry |
|
|
501 | (72) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
17.2 Photothermal and Photoacoustic Effects at Single-Cell Level |
|
|
502 | (5) |
|
|
|
502 | (3) |
|
17.2.2 Signal Description |
|
|
505 | (2) |
|
|
|
507 | (11) |
|
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
17.3.2 PT Scanning Image Cytometry |
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
17.3.3 PT Flow Cytometery (PTFC) |
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
17.3.3.1 PT Image Flow Cytometry |
|
|
508 | (3) |
|
17.3.3.2 PTFC System and Its Image Resolution |
|
|
511 | (3) |
|
17.3.3.3 PTFC with Thermal-Lens Mode |
|
|
514 | (1) |
|
17.3.3.4 PTFC Integrating Thermal-Lens and Imaging Modes |
|
|
515 | (3) |
|
17.4 Integrated PTFC for In vivo Studies |
|
|
518 | (6) |
|
17.4.1 General Schematics of the Instrument |
|
|
518 | (3) |
|
17.4.2 High-Resolution Imaging of Flowing Cells |
|
|
521 | (2) |
|
17.4.3 PT Identification of Cells |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
17.4.4 Cell Targeting with Gold Nanoparticles |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
17.5 Integrated PAFC for In vivo Studies |
|
|
524 | (15) |
|
17.5.1 Schematics of the Instrument |
|
|
524 | (2) |
|
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
17.5.3 Contrast Agents for PAFC |
|
|
526 | (2) |
|
17.5.4 PAFC Testing and Applications |
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
17.5.4.1 Testing on Noninvasiveness |
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
17.5.4.2 PAFC Testing Using Vital Dyes |
|
|
528 | (2) |
|
17.5.4.3 PAFC Detection of Circulating Nanoparticles |
|
|
530 | (3) |
|
17.5.4.4 PA Detection of Single Circulating Bacteria |
|
|
533 | (4) |
|
17.5.4.5 PAFC Benefits and Potentialities |
|
|
537 | (2) |
|
17.6 In vivo Lymph Flow Cytometery |
|
|
539 | (8) |
|
17.6.1 Principles and Main Applications of Lymph FC |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
17.6.1.1 Schematics of Integrated Lymph FC |
|
|
539 | (2) |
|
17.6.1.2 Label-Free Counting of Metastatic Melanoma Cells |
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
17.6.1.3 Label-Free PA Detection of Lymphocytes |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
17.6.1.4 Real-Time Two-Wavelength Lymph FC with Multicolor Probes |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
17.6.2 High-Resolution Single-Cell Imaging |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
17.6.2.1 High-Speed Imaging |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
17.6.2.2 Capability of Multimodal Cell Imaging |
|
|
544 | (2) |
|
17.6.2.3 Conclusion Remarks |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
17.7 In vivo Mapping of Sentinel Lymph Nodes (SLNs) |
|
|
547 | (11) |
|
17.7.1 Motivation for Cancer Prognoses |
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
17.7.2 Fiber-Based Multimodal Diagnostic-Therapeutic Platform |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
17.7.2.1 Experimental Arrangement and Methodology |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
17.7.2.2 Contrasting Agents, Cells under Study, and Animal Model |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
17.7.3 In vivo and In vitro SLN Studies |
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
17.7.3.2 Two-Wavelength PA Lymphography with Multicolor Nanoparticles |
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
17.7.3.3 Melanoma Model: Detection of Tumor Cells in Lymphatics and SLNs |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
17.7.3.4 PA Detection of Breast Cancer Metastases in SLNs with Functionalized Nanoparticles |
|
|
552 | (2) |
|
17.7.3.5 Targeted Laser PT Purging Metastases in a SLN |
|
|
554 | (2) |
|
17.7.4 Discussion of PA/PT Platform Benefits and Perspectives |
|
|
556 | (2) |
|
17.8 Concluding Remarks and Discussion |
|
|
558 | (15) |
|
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
|
|
563 | (10) |
|
18 Optical Instrumentation for the Measurement of Blood Perfusion, Concentration, and Oxygenation in Living Microcirculation |
|
|
573 | (32) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
573 | (4) |
|
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
18.3 Nailfold Capillaroscopy |
|
|
577 | (5) |
|
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
18.3.3 Limitations and Improved Analysis |
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
18.4.1 Principles of Operation of LDPI |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
18.5 Laser Speckle Perfusion Imaging (LSPI) |
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
|
|
584 | (2) |
|
18.6.1 Principles of Operation of TiVi |
|
|
584 | (2) |
|
18.7 Comparison of TiVi, LSPI, and LDPI |
|
|
586 | (6) |
|
18.7.1 Laser Doppler Imaging -- Moor Instruments -- MoorLDLS |
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
18.7.2 Laser Speckle Imaging -- Moor Instruments -- MoorFLPI |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
18.7.3 Polarization Spectroscopy -- Wheels Bridge -- Tissue Viability TiVi Imager |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
18.7.4 Comparison of Imaging Systems |
|
|
588 | (2) |
|
|
|
590 | (2) |
|
|
|
592 | (5) |
|
18.8.1 Historical and Literature Review |
|
|
592 | (3) |
|
18.8.2 Alternative Methods for Measurement of Oxygenation |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
18.8.3 Transcutaneous Oxygen Pressure (TCpO2) |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
18.8.4 Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
18.8.5 Luminescence Quenching (Fluorescence and Phosphorescence) |
|
|
597 | (1) |
|
|
|
597 | (8) |
|
|
|
598 | (1) |
|
|
|
599 | (6) |
|
19 Blood Flow Cytometry and Cell Aggregation Study with Laser Speckle |
|
|
605 | (22) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
19.2 Laser Speckle Contrast Imaging |
|
|
605 | (3) |
|
|
|
605 | (2) |
|
|
|
607 | (1) |
|
19.3 Investigation of Optimum Imaging Conditions with Numerical Simulation |
|
|
608 | (6) |
|
19.3.1 Static Speckle Field Simulation |
|
|
608 | (2) |
|
19.3.2 Dynamic Speckle Field Simulation |
|
|
610 | (1) |
|
19.3.3 Speckle Size and Speckle Contrast |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
19.3.4 Specificities of CCD Camera and Speckle Contrast |
|
|
612 | (2) |
|
19.4 Spatio-Temporal Laser Speckle Contrast Analysis |
|
|
614 | (4) |
|
19.4.1 Spatial Based Method |
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
19.4.2 Temporal Based Method |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
19.4.3 Spatio-Temporal Based Method |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
19.4.4 Theoretical and Experimental Comparisons |
|
|
616 | (2) |
|
19.5 Fast Blood Flow Visualization Using GPU |
|
|
618 | (3) |
|
19.5.1 CPU-Based Solutions for LSCI Data Processing |
|
|
618 | (2) |
|
19.5.2 GPU-Based Solution for LSCI Data Processing |
|
|
620 | (1) |
|
19.6 Detecting Aggregation of Red Blood Cells or Platelets Using Laser Speckle |
|
|
621 | (2) |
|
|
|
623 | (4) |
|
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
|
|
624 | (3) |
|
20 Modifications of Optical Properties of Blood during Photodynamic Reactions In vitro and In vivo |
|
|
627 | (72) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
20.2 Description and Brief History of PDT |
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
|
|
628 | (4) |
|
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
20.5 Properties of Blood, Blood Cells, and Photosensitizers: Before Photodynamic Reaction |
|
|
633 | (18) |
|
20.5.1 Main Physiological Properties of Blood (Hematocrit, Hemoglobin, Oxygenation, Share Rate) Coupled with Its Absorption, Scattering, and Autofluorescence |
|
|
633 | (4) |
|
20.5.2 Blood and Blood Component Autofluorescence |
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
20.5.3 Overview of Optical Properties of Contemporary Photosensitizers Used for Systemic Administration |
|
|
638 | (3) |
|
20.5.4 Interaction of Photosensitizers with Blood Cells: Uptake Locations and Pharmacokinetics |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
20.5.5 Alteration of the Optical Properties of the Photosensitizers Dissolved in Blood |
|
|
642 | (9) |
|
20.6 Photodynamic Reactions in Blood and Blood Cells, Blood Components, and Cells |
|
|
651 | (5) |
|
20.6.1 Photodynamic Modifications and Alterations of Blood Plasma and Plasma Proteins |
|
|
651 | (1) |
|
20.6.2 Photodynamic Modifications and Alterations of Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) |
|
|
651 | (3) |
|
20.6.3 Photodynamic Modifications and Alterations of White Blood Cells (Leucocytes) |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
20.6.4 Photodynamic Modifications and Alterations of Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes) |
|
|
654 | (2) |
|
20.7 Types of Photodynamic Reactions in Blood: In vitro versus In vivo |
|
|
656 | (2) |
|
20.8 Blood Sample In vitro as a Model Studying Photodynamic Reaction |
|
|
658 | (19) |
|
20.8.1 Blood Heating Effects during PDT In vitro |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
20.8.2 Monitoring of Oxygen Consumption, Photosensitizer Concentration, and Fluence Rate during Photodynamic Therapy in Whole Blood and Individual Blood Cells |
|
|
661 | (9) |
|
20.8.3 Theoretical Model of Oxygen Consumption and Photobleaching in Blood during PDT In vitro |
|
|
670 | (7) |
|
20.9 Monitoring of Oxygen Consumption and Photobleaching in Blood during PDT In vivo |
|
|
677 | (2) |
|
20.10 Photodynamic Disinfection of Blood |
|
|
679 | (3) |
|
20.11 Photodynamic Therapy of Blood Cell Cancer |
|
|
682 | (3) |
|
|
|
685 | (14) |
|
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (12) |
| Index |
|
699 | |
Lisainfo e-raamatute kohta