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E-raamat: Concrete Petrography: A Handbook of Investigative Techniques, Second Edition

Edited by (RSK STATS Consultancy, UK), Edited by (Retired Consulting Engineer, Oxford, UK)
  • Formaat: 816 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 19-Dec-2016
  • Kirjastus: Elsevier Science Ltd
  • ISBN-13: 9781466583825
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Concrete Petrography: A Handbook of Investigative Techniques, Second EditionSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: 816 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 19-Dec-2016
  • Kirjastus: Elsevier Science Ltd
  • ISBN-13: 9781466583825
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This classic reference has established the value of petrography as a powerful method for the investigation of concrete as a material. It provides an authoritative and well-illustrated review of concrete composition and textures, including the causes of defects, deterioration, and failure that can be identified using a petrological microscope. This new edition is entirely revised and updated and also greatly extended to take account of new scientific developments and significant improvements in instrumentation and to reflect current laboratory working practices, as well as to reflect new understanding of the performance of concrete and related materials.

Now in full color throughout, Concrete Petrography, Second Edition provides case study examples, with appropriate explanatory discussions and practical advice on selecting, handling and preparing specimens. It assists and guides the engineer, the trainee and the experienced petrographer in understanding the scientific evidence that is basic to petrographic analysis and so will lead to more accurate and timely diagnosis and treatment of problems in structural concrete.

This book includes:











Contributions in specialist areas by internationally recognized experts Explanation of computer techniques as an aid to petrography Full coverage of inspection, sampling, and specimen preparation New sections covering recent technological development of equipment Guidance on observation of cement and concrete mineralogy and microfabrics Discussion and illustrative examples of deterioration and failure mechanisms

New work and guidance on the determination of water/cement ratio New color illustrations and micrographs throughout Thorough updating of standards, other authoritative publications, and references A fully revised, extended, and updated glossary of optical and other properties

Arvustused

"Over the years, the first edition of Concrete Petrography has earned its spurs as a standard reference work for its target audience, and beyond. This lavishly illustrated second edition has been updated, vastly improved and extended. Its broad variety of topics caters to lab technicians, microscope operators, and academic learners. A comprehensive work like this deserves a place on the shelf of each petrographic lab or preparation room." Dr. Maarten A.T.M. Broekmans, Geological Survey of Norway NGU

" reflects decades of experience with concrete from the authors. Both are experts in the subject and a great effort is shown by the list of updated references that is included. The book not only explains the basic concepts needed for the performance of concrete petrography but also goes into unexpected detail regarding concrete composition, methods and sample preparation. The fact that it covers all the mechanisms known of concrete deterioration gives the reader important clues about the best approach on assessing a damaged structure. It is a requisite in this area of knowledge!" Isabel Fernandes, University of Lisbon

"The book is encyclopaedic in character but very lucid and readable and I can truly recommend it to those who seriously investigate concrete, and especially problems in concrete in service. I know no better book on concrete petrography." Adam Neville, from the Foreword

"I believe that this volume will stand for many years as the international standard and definitive source of information on the petrography of concrete and congratulate the authors on their accomplishment" Sydney Diamond, Purdue University, USA in the Foreword

"This authoritative book is very welcome arrival...I sincerely congratulate the authors on their tremendous effort to produce this comprehensive invaluable text on concrete petrography...I would like to strongly recommend it to the whole cross s

Foreword xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgements xix
1 Introduction 1(8)
1.1 Concrete petrography
1(1)
1.2 Historical background
1(2)
1.3 Overview of petrographic methods
3(2)
1.4 Standard procedures
5(1)
1.5 Objectives and coverage
5(1)
References
6(3)
2 Petrographic equipment and methods 9(48)
2.1 Petrographic examination of concrete
9(1)
2.2 Initial laboratory examination
9(3)
2.3 Petrographic laboratory
12(7)
2.3.1 Low-power stereomicroscope
13(1)
2.3.2 Petrographic polarising microscope
14(2)
2.3.2.1 Adjustment of the polarising microscope for transmitted light
14(1)
2.3.2.2 Centring the objective lenses
15(1)
2.3.2.3 Calibrating the eyepiece micrometre graticule
15(1)
2.3.2.4 Reflected or incident-light illumination
15(1)
2.3.3 Construction features of the polarising microscope
16(3)
2.3.4 Photomicrographic equipment
19(1)
2.4 Quantitative methods of component analysis
19(5)
2.4.1 Standard modal analysis methods
20(4)
2.5 Complementary and specialised techniques
24(18)
2.5.1 Petrographic examination under ultraviolet illumination
24(1)
2.5.2 Scanning electron microscopy and microanalysis
24(9)
2.5.2.1 Components of a scanning electron microscope
26(4)
2.5.2.2 Elemental x-ray microanalysis
30(1)
2.5.2.3 Mineral and element recognition and mapping
31(2)
2.5.3 X-ray powder diffraction techniques
33(1)
2.5.4 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
34(3)
2.5.4.1 Sample preparation
35(2)
2.5.4.2 Spectral interpretation
37(1)
2.5.5 Thermal methods of analysis
37(1)
2.5.6 Chemical methods of analysis
38(4)
2.5.6.1 Chemical analysis of unhydrated blended cements
38(1)
2.5.6.2 Chemical analysis of hardened cement pastes in concrete
39(2)
2.5.6.3 Identification of polymer additions in mortars and concrete
41(1)
2.6 Computer-aided petrographic methods
42(10)
2.6.1 Quantitative image analysis
42(5)
2.6.1.1 Acquisition
43(2)
2.6.1.2 Enhancement
45(1)
2.6.1.3 Segmentation and thresholding
45(1)
2.6.1.4 Measurement
46(1)
2.6.2 Case study applications of image analysis
47(10)
2.6.2.1 Estimation of pyrite content in mudstone aggregate
47(1)
2.6.2.2 Modal analysis of a mortar specimen
47(2)
2.6.2.3 Quantitative investigation of fractures
49(1)
2.6.2.4 Evaluation of shape and distribution of voids
49(3)
References
52(5)
3 Sampling and specimen preparation 57(46)
3.1 Sampling concrete and related materials
57(1)
3.2 Inspection of structures
57(2)
3.2.1 Surface expression of concrete deterioration
58(1)
3.3 Representative sample
59(16)
3.3.1 Particulate materials
59(2)
3.3.2 Statistical considerations
61(3)
3.3.3 Examination of particulate materials
64(1)
3.3.4 Solid samples
65(4)
3.3.5 Practical sampling methods for solids
69(1)
3.3.6 Preparation of subsample specimens for investigation
70(5)
3.4 Preparation of thin sections and finely ground or polished surfaces
75(16)
3.4.1 Laboratory methods of cutting concrete
76(2)
3.4.2 Laboratory preparation of ground surfaces
78(4)
3.4.3 Laboratory preparation of polished surfaces
82(1)
3.4.4 Resins for impregnation and mounting concrete specimens
82(4)
3.4.5 Preparation of petrographic thin sections
86(5)
3.5 Specimen preparation for special purposes
91(8)
3.5.1 Small selected specimens
92(1)
3.5.2 Powdered specimen
92(1)
3.5.3 Preparations involving etches, stains and dyes
93(1)
3.5.4 Dyes for use with resins
94(1)
3.5.5 Stains for identification of minerals
95(1)
3.5.6 Etching procedures for cement clinkers
96(3)
References
99(4)
4 Composition of concrete 103(194)
4.1 Scope
103(1)
4.2 Cement types and binder content
103(54)
4.2.1 Anhydrous Portland cement phases and clinker
103(7)
4.2.1.1 Calcium silicates (C3S, C2S)
106(2)
4.2.1.2 Calcium aluminates and calcium aluminoferrites (C3A, C4AF)
108(1)
4.2.1.3 Lime and periclase (CaO, MgO)
108(1)
4.2.1.4 Other phases and gypsum
109(1)
4.2.2 Identification of cement type in concrete
110(6)
4.2.2.1 General principle of optical microscopical methods
111(1)
4.2.2.2 Microscopical procedure
111(2)
4.2.2.3 Interpretation of the findings and some difficulties
113(2)
4.2.2.4 SEM and other methods
115(1)
4.2.3 Hydrated cement phases
116(15)
4.2.3.1 CSH and the microstructure of cement paste
118(2)
4.2.3.2 Degree of hydration
120(1)
4.2.3.3 Portlandite (Ca(OH)2)
121(3)
4.2.3.4 Ettringite and some other complex phases
124(7)
4.2.4 Blended and special cements
131(15)
4.2.4.1 Portland—limestone cements
131(1)
4.2.4.2 Ggbs and Portland blastfurnace cements
131(4)
4.2.4.3 P fa, fly ash and Portland pozzolanic cements
135(3)
4.2.4.4 High-alumina cement
138(7)
4.2.4.5 Supersulphated and other special cements
145(1)
4.2.5 Building lime and cement/lime mixtures
146(10)
4.2.5.1 Building lime
147(6)
4.2.5.2 Cement/lime mixtures
153(3)
4.2.6 Cement or binder contents in concrete
156(1)
4.3 Aggregate types and characteristics
157(29)
4.3.1 Petrographic identity of aggregate
157(6)
4.3.1.1 Typical aggregate combinations
158(1)
4.3.1.2 Crushed rock coarse aggregates
158(3)
4.3.1.3 Natural gravel coarse aggregates
161(1)
4.3.1.4 Crushed rock and natural sand fine aggregates
161(1)
4.3.1.5 Recycled aggregates
162(1)
4.3.2 Particle size and aggregate size grading
163(8)
4.3.3 Particle shape
171(2)
4.3.4 Particle shape recognition
173(9)
4.3.4.1 Form and sphericity
173(1)
4.3.4.2 Roundness and angularity
174(1)
4.3.4.3 Irregularity
175(1)
4.3.4.4 Use of desktop flat-bed scanners
176(6)
4.3.5 Other particle characteristics
182(4)
4.4 Water/cement ratio
186(23)
4.4.1 Definitions and relationship to concrete properties
186(2)
4.4.2 Indicators of water/cement ratio
188(5)
4.4.2.1 Water voids and bleeding
189(1)
4.4.2.2 Capillary porosity
189(3)
4.4.2.3 Mineralogical features
192(1)
4.4.3 Determination of water/cement ratio by the physico-chemical method
193(2)
4.4.4 Determination of water/cement ratio by fluorescence microscopy
195(12)
4.4.4.1 Principle of the method
195(1)
4.4.4.2 Transmitted and reflected light procedures for determination of equivalent water/cement ratio using thin sections
196(8)
4.4.4.3 Reflected light procedure for the determination of equivalent water/cement ratio using ground polished specimens
204(3)
4.4.5 Determination of water/cement ratio using scanning electron microscopy
207(2)
4.5 Air-void content and air entrainment
209(24)
4.5.1 Types of voids in concrete
209(7)
4.5.1.1 Entrapped air voids
210(1)
4.5.1.2 Entrained air voids
211(5)
4.5.2 Quantification of air-void content in hardened concrete
216(8)
4.5.2.1 Visual assessment of excess voidage
216(3)
4.5.2.2 Other methods for assessing air-void content
219(1)
4.5.2.3 Use of desktop flat-bed scanners
220(4)
4.5.3 Microscopical measurement of the air-void system
224(7)
4.5.4 Aerated and foamed concrete
231(2)
4.6 Mineral additions and pigments
233(20)
4.6.1 Fly ash and pulverised-fuel ash
233(5)
4.6.1.1 Identifying fly ash or pfa
234(1)
4.6.1.2 Quantifying the content of fly ash or pfa
235(3)
4.6.2 Blastfurnace slag materials
238(6)
4.6.2.1 Identifying ggbs
240(3)
4.6.2.2 Quantifying the content of ggbs
243(1)
4.6.3 Ultra-fine additions
244(6)
4.6.3.1 Microsilica (condensed silica fume)
245(4)
4.6.3.2 Metakaolin
249(1)
4.6.4 Natural pozzolanas and other additions
250(1)
4.6.5 Pigments
251(2)
4.7 Chemical admixtures
253(3)
4.8 Fibre reinforcement
256(9)
4.8.1 Steel fibres
260(2)
4.8.2 Glass fibres
262(1)
4.8.3 Polymer and other organic fibres
262(3)
4.9 Analysis of concrete
265(9)
4.9.1 Quantitative analysis of concrete composition
265(3)
4.9.2 Estimation of cement replacement by pfa or ggbs
268(2)
4.9.3 Applications of concrete composition by petrography
270(28)
4.9.3.1 Comparison of actual and design concrete mixes
270(3)
4.9.3.2 Concrete in a murder case
273(1)
References
274(23)
5 Appearance and textures of cementitious materials 297(88)
5.1 Introduction
297(1)
5.2 Optical observations of the hardened Portland cement paste matrix
298(19)
5.2.1 Typical composition of hardened Portland cement
300(1)
5.2.2 Remnant or oversize cement clinker grains
301(3)
5.2.3 Colour of hardened concrete
304(1)
5.2.4 Ettringite in hardened concrete
305(2)
5.2.5 Calcium hydroxide in hardened cement paste
307(7)
5.2.6 Modification of calcium hydroxide in Portland cement concretes
314(3)
5.3 Concretes containing mineral admixtures
317(10)
5.3.1 Portland limestone cement concrete
317(1)
5.3.2 Pozzolanic and Portland slag cements
317(8)
5.3.3 Petrographic examination of slags and pozzolanas
325(2)
5.4 High-alumina or calcium aluminate cement concretes
327(4)
5.5 Carbonation of Portland cement concretes
331(10)
5.5.1 Effects of carbonation on porosity and strength
333(1)
5.5.2 Typical textures of carbonation
334(2)
5.5.3 Carbonation of the outer layers of concrete
336(1)
5.5.4 Carbonation associated with crack systems
337(1)
5.5.5 Carbonation associated with aggregate types in concrete
338(1)
5.5.6 Surface exudations and efflorescence
339(2)
5.6 Interfaces within concrete
341(6)
5.6.1 Aggregate/cement paste interface
342(2)
5.6.2 Steel reinforcement/cement paste interfaces
344(1)
5.6.3 Fibre reinforcement/cement paste interfaces
345(1)
5.6.4 Render interfaces
346(1)
5.6.5 Other cementitious interfaces
346(1)
5.7 Voids in concrete
347(8)
5.7.1 Entrapped air voids
349(1)
5.7.2 Entrained air void systems
350(2)
5.7.3 Capillary and gel pores
352(1)
5.7.4 Other air voids in concrete
352(2)
5.7.5 Aerated and no-fines concretes
354(1)
5.8 Cracking in concrete
355(20)
5.8.1 Cracks resulting from tensile strain
356(1)
5.8.2 Differentiating between structural and non-structural cracks
356(2)
5.8.3 Non-structural cracks in concrete
358(12)
5.8.3.1 Cracking subparallel to, and restricted to, the near surface
358(3)
5.8.3.2 Cracking approximately perpendicular to, and restricted to, the near surface
361(4)
5.8.3.3 Cracking reflecting interior expansion of the concrete
365(3)
5.8.3.4 Cracking limited to the interior of the concrete
368(2)
5.8.4 Petrographic examination and the interpretation of crack systems
370(3)
5.8.5 Cracking as artefacts of sampling and preparation
373(2)
References
375(10)
6 Examination of deteriorated and damaged concrete 385(228)
6.1 Introduction
385(11)
6.1.1 Background to concrete durability
385(2)
6.1.2 Durability investigation and classification
387(3)
6.1.3 Quantification of deterioration and damage
390(6)
6.1.3.1 Methodology
391(2)
6.1.3.2 Interpretation and reproducibility
393(2)
6.1.3.3 Alternative methods
395(1)
6.2 Plastic and drying shrinkage
396(6)
6.2.1 Overview
396(1)
6.2.2 Macroscopic effects of plastic and drying shrinkage
396(1)
6.2.3 Petrographic examination of shrinkage cracking
397(1)
6.2.4 Shrinkage of aggregates in concrete
398(4)
6.3 Corrosion of steel reinforcement
402(14)
6.3.1 Role, depth and quality of concrete cover
404(2)
6.3.2 Steel reinforcement corrosion mechanisms and factors
406(3)
6.3.3 Carbonation, loss of alkalinity and corrosion of reinforcement
409(2)
6.3.4 Chlorides and corrosion of steel reinforcement
411(5)
6.3.5 Prevention of reinforcement corrosion
416(1)
6.4 Frost and freeze—thaw action
416(6)
6.4.1 Freeze—thaw mechanisms and factors
418(1)
6.4.2 Macroscopic and microscopic evidence of freeze—thaw action
418(4)
6.5 Sulphate actions
422(67)
6.5.1 Overview
422(1)
6.5.2 Ground and groundwater sulphates
423(6)
6.5.3 Conventional sulphate attack
429(10)
6.5.3.1 Properties of concrete relating to sulphate attack
429(1)
6.5.3.2 External appearance of concrete attacked by sulphate
430(2)
6.5.3.3 Internal textures of concrete attacked by sulphate
432(7)
6.5.4 Seawater attack
439(4)
6.5.5 Sulphate attack in sewerage systems
443(7)
6.5.6 Thaumasite sulphate attack (TSA)
450(11)
6.5.6.1 Nature of TSA
450(4)
6.5.6.2 Petrography of TSA
454(7)
6.5.7 Internal sulphate attack
461(5)
6.5.8 Mundic problem
466(9)
6.5.8.1 Background to the mundic problem
466(3)
6.5.8.2 Petrographic examination of mundic concrete
469(2)
6.5.8.3 RICS classification scheme
471(4)
6.5.9 Delayed ettringite formation (DEF)
475(14)
6.5.9.1 Background and mechanism of DEF
477(4)
6.5.9.2 Petrographic investigation of DEF
481(8)
6.6 Acid and alkaline attacks
489(18)
6.6.1 Natural acid waters and 'aggressive carbonation'
491(10)
6.6.1.1 Petrographic textures
493(3)
6.6.1.2 Estimation of rates of attack
496(5)
6.6.2 Carbonation and corrosion by geothermal fluids
501(2)
6.6.2.1 Textures of grouts exposed to geothermal fluids
501(2)
6.6.3 Acid-type attack from sulphates, sulphides, brine and microbial action
503(1)
6.6.4 Industrial chemical attack
504(3)
6.6.4.1 Petrographic investigation
506(1)
6.7 Weathering and leaching
507(3)
6.7.1 General aspects of weathering and deterioration
507(1)
6.7.2 Water leaching
508(1)
6.7.3 Salt weathering
509(1)
6.8 Alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR)
510(43)
6.8.1 Overview
510(2)
6.8.2 Chemistry of the alkali—silica reaction
512(2)
6.8.3 External appearance of concrete affected by ASR
514(5)
6.8.4 Microscopic textures and features of concrete affected by ASR
519(25)
6.8.4.1 Observations on cores and polished slices
521(2)
6.8.4.2 Observations on thin sections
523(8)
6.8.4.3 Reactive aggregates
531(11)
6.8.4.4 Lightweight aggregates
542(2)
6.8.5 Examination of concretes suspected of ASR
544(6)
6.8.5.1 Interpretation of ASR textures
544(3)
6.8.5.2 Practical examination
547(1)
6.8.5.3 Other considerations
548(2)
6.8.6 International schemes for assessment, diagnosis and specification
550(3)
6.9 AAR involving carbonate aggregates
553(16)
6.9.1 Background and current position on ASR
554(4)
6.9.1.1 De-dolomitisation
554(1)
6.9.1.2 Alkali—silica reaction
555(1)
6.9.1.3 De-calcitisation
556(1)
6.9.1.4 Natural de-dolomitisation
557(1)
6.9.2 Practical examination of concretes suspected of ACR
558(8)
6.9.2.1 General features
559(1)
6.9.2.2 Reaction rims in aggregates
560(2)
6.9.2.3 Carbonate haloes in cement paste
562(1)
6.9.2.4 Alkali—silica gel
563(2)
6.9.2.5 Cryptocrystalline quartz
565(1)
6.9.3 Ancillary techniques for assessing ACR potential
566(3)
6.9.3.1 Acid-insoluble residues
566(1)
6.9.3.2 Crystallinity index (CI) of quartz
567(1)
6.9.3.3 Uranyl fluorescence method
567(1)
6.9.3.4 Chemical test
567(1)
6.9.3.5 Rock cylinder test
568(1)
6.9.3.6 Concrete and mortar expansion tests
568(1)
6.10 Damage from thermal cycling and fire
569(13)
6.10.1 Thermal expansion and cracking of concrete
570(2)
6.10.2 Effects of fire damage on concrete
572(4)
6.10.2.1 Colour changes
573(1)
6.10.2.2 Surface spalling
574(2)
6.10.3 Investigation of fire-damaged concrete
576(48)
6.10.3.1 Petrography
576(4)
6.10.3.2 Other methods of investigation
580(2)
References
582(31)
7 Precast and special concretes 613(34)
7.1 Standard precast concrete units
613(1)
7.2 Precast, block, brick, tile and pavers
614(3)
7.3 Precast concrete pipes
617(3)
7.4 Reinforced precast concrete units
620(1)
7.5 Steam-cured precast concrete units
621(1)
7.6 Composite precast concrete units and reconstituted (artificial) stone
622(2)
7.7 Fibre-reinforced products
624(9)
7.7.1 Asbestos—cement products
624(5)
7.7.2 Synthetic fibre—reinforced concrete products
629(3)
7.7.3 Natural fibre—reinforced concrete products
632(1)
7.8 Polymer cement products
633(2)
7.9 Special floor coatings
635(2)
7.10 Self-compacting concrete
637(1)
7.11 Lightweight aggregates and concretes
637(6)
References
643(4)
8 Portland cement mortar, screeds, renders and special cements 647(22)
8.1 Mortar and related materials
647(1)
8.2 Floor screeds
647(7)
8.2.1 Terrazzo
651(1)
8.2.2 Tiled surface finishes
652(2)
8.3 Renders and cementitious plasters
654(2)
8.3.1 Cementitious plasters
654(1)
8.3.2 Petrographic methods of examination
655(1)
8.4 Jointing and bedding mortars
656(1)
8.5 Special cements and grouts
657(5)
8.5.1 Cementitious grouts
658(1)
8.5.2 Oil-well cements
659(1)
8.5.3 Petrographic investigation of oil-well cements
660(1)
8.5.4 White and coloured Portland cements
661(1)
8.5.5 Other Portland-based cements
662(1)
8.6 Sprayed concrete
662(3)
8.7 Cementitious repair materials
665(1)
8.8 Cementitious levelling compounds
665(1)
8.9 Cementitious adhesive compounds
666(1)
References
666(3)
9 Non-Portland cementitious materials, plasters and mortars 669(26)
9.1 Lime-based materials and products
669(2)
9.1.1 Limestone and lime
669(2)
9.2 Lime plasters, mortars and screeds
671(4)
9.3 Gypsum-based wall plasters and plasterboard
675(6)
9.3.1 Petrographic investigation of hemihydrate and anhydrite products
679(1)
9.3.2 Gypsum and plaster finishes
679(2)
9.4 Historic materials
681(5)
9.5 Calcium silicate products
686(4)
9.6 Special flooring finishes
690(1)
9.7 Surface coatings
690(1)
References
691(4)
Glossary of minerals 695(60)
Index 755
Dr. Alan Poole began his career as a geologist before becoming a consultant specializing in the petrography of aggregates, concrete and related materials. He gained a wide experience of both the practical and research aspects of alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete working both in the UK and abroad. He is involved in specialist post-graduate training, with British and European standards committees and with technical working parties.







Dr. Ian Sims

is a director of RSK Environment Ltd in the UK, where he is responsible for their Materials Consultancy team (including their Petrography Laboratory) and expert witness services. He is Chairman of the British Standards aggregates committee; and previously Secretary of the Geological Society (Engineering Group) working parties on Aggregates, Stone and Clay materials for construction, also their working party on Hot Deserts: engineering, geology and geomorphology, and of the RILEM international technical committees on alkali-aggregate reactivity in concrete (1988 to 2014).
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