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xv | |
| Preface |
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xix | |
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Chapter 1 Food Waste Management, Valorization, and Sustainability in the Food Industry |
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3 | (22) |
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3 | (1) |
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1.2 Definitions of "Food Waste" and "Food Loss" |
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4 | (1) |
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1.3 Quantities of Lost and Wasted Food and Impact on Food and Nutrition Security |
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5 | |
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6 | (1) |
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1.5 Origin of Food Waste and Food Loss |
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7 | (3) |
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1.5.1 Distribution in the Different Production Stages |
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7 | (1) |
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1.5.2 Distribution in Transition and Industrialized Countries |
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8 | (2) |
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1.6 Management and Valorization Strategies |
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10 | (2) |
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1.6.1 Policy in the European Union |
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10 | (2) |
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1.6.2 Policy in the United States |
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12 | (1) |
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1.7 Treatment of Food Waste |
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12 | (3) |
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1.7.1 Valorization as Animal Feed |
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12 | (1) |
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13 | (1) |
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1.7.3 Biofuel Conversion Methods |
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14 | (1) |
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1.7.4 Composting and Vermicomposting |
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14 | (1) |
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1.7.5 Recovery and Valorization |
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14 | (1) |
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1.8 How Food Waste Recovery Improves Sustainability of Food Systems |
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15 | (10) |
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1.8.1 Economic Sustainability Improvements |
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17 | (1) |
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1.8.2 Social and Environmental Sustainability Improvements |
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18 | (7) |
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Chapter 2 Classification and Target Compounds |
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25 | (34) |
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25 | (1) |
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26 | (3) |
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26 | (1) |
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2.2.2 Wheat Mill Fractions |
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27 | (1) |
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2.2.3 Rice Mill Fractions |
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27 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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2.2.5 Barley Mill Fractions |
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28 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (2) |
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2.3.1 Potato Processing Waste |
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29 | (1) |
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2.3.2 Cassava Processing Waste |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (1) |
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31 | (3) |
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2.4.1 Pulses Processing Waste |
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31 | (2) |
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2.4.2 Oilseed Processing Waste |
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33 | (1) |
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2.4.3 Recovery of Pulses and Oilseed By-Products for Nonfood Application |
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34 | (1) |
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34 | (3) |
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37 | (3) |
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37 | (1) |
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2.6.2 Higher Value Products from Meat Processing Sources |
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38 | (2) |
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2.7 Fisheries By-Products |
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40 | (2) |
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41 | (1) |
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42 | (17) |
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2.8.1 Dairy Processing Waste |
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42 | (1) |
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2.8.2 Whey as the Most Abundant Dairy By-Product |
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43 | (1) |
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2.8.3 Direct Utilization of Whey |
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43 | (1) |
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2.8.4 Indirect Utilization of Whey |
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44 | (15) |
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Chapter 3 The Universal Recovery Strategy |
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59 | (26) |
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59 | (2) |
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3.2 Characteristics of Target Compounds |
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61 | (6) |
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61 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Structural Characteristics of Target Macromolecules |
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62 | (2) |
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3.2.3 Structural Characteristics of Target Micromolecules |
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64 | (3) |
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3.3 Substrate Macro- and Microstructure |
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67 | (1) |
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3.4 Selection of the Appropriate Solvent |
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68 | (3) |
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3.4.1 Compound Solubility in Different Solvents |
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68 | (2) |
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3.4.2 Thermodynamic Prediction for the Preference of Target Compounds in Different Solvents |
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70 | (1) |
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3.5 Selection of the Recovery Stages |
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71 | (2) |
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3.6 Selection of the Appropriate Technologies |
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73 | (12) |
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3.6.1 Preparation of the Material |
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73 | (1) |
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3.6.2 Removal of Macromolecules |
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73 | (1) |
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3.6.3 Dissociation of Molecular Clusters and Complexes |
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74 | (1) |
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3.6.4 Removal of Co-Extracted Impurities |
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75 | (1) |
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3.6.5 Obtainment of the Final Product |
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76 | (9) |
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SECTION II CONVENTIONAL TECHNIQUES |
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Chapter 4 Conventional Macroscopic Pretreatment |
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85 | (20) |
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85 | (1) |
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4.2 Size Reduction of Solids |
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85 | (2) |
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4.2.1 Size Reduction Principles |
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85 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Equipment for Size Reduction of Solids |
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86 | (1) |
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4.2.3 Wet Milling Applications |
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86 | (1) |
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4.3 Thermal and Vacuum Concentration |
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87 | (4) |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (2) |
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4.3.3 Evaporation of Heat-Sensitive Liquids |
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90 | (1) |
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90 | (1) |
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4.3.5 Application of Evaporation |
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91 | (1) |
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4.4 Mechanical Separation (Centrifugation/Mechanical Expression) |
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91 | (3) |
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91 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Mechanical Expression |
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92 | (2) |
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94 | (2) |
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4.5.1 Freeze Drying Principles and Equipment |
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94 | (1) |
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4.5.2 Freeze Drying Applications |
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95 | (1) |
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96 | (9) |
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4.6.1 Membrane Separation Principles |
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96 | (2) |
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4.6.2 Microfiltration Applications |
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98 | (7) |
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Chapter 5 Conventional Macro- and Micromolecules Separation |
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105 | (22) |
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105 | (1) |
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5.2 Ethanol Precipitation |
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105 | (2) |
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105 | (1) |
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5.2.2 Precipitation of Dietary Fibers from Fruit Wastes |
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106 | (1) |
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5.2.3 Purification of Pharmaceuticals from Marine Biomass |
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106 | (1) |
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5.2.4 Purification of Bromelain from Pineapple Waste |
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107 | (1) |
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107 | (4) |
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107 | (3) |
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5.3.2 Application in the Dairy Industry |
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110 | (1) |
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5.3.3 Application in the Fishery Industry |
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110 | (1) |
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5.3.4 Application in the Poultry Industry |
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110 | (1) |
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5.3.5 Application in the Agricultural Industry |
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110 | (1) |
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5.3.6 Application in Wineries |
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111 | (1) |
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5.4 Isoelectric Solubilization/Precipitation |
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111 | (6) |
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111 | (2) |
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5.4.2 Recovery of Proteins at the Laboratory Scale |
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113 | (1) |
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5.4.3 Recovery of Proteins at the Pilot Scale |
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113 | (4) |
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117 | (3) |
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117 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Extrusion-Cooking Technique |
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117 | (1) |
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5.5.3 Effect of Extrusion Processing Factors on Target Compounds |
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117 | (2) |
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5.5.4 Recovery of Macromolecules |
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119 | (1) |
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120 | (7) |
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Chapter 6 Conventional Extraction |
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127 | (22) |
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127 | (1) |
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128 | (2) |
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6.2.1 Description of the Technology |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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6.2.3 Safety Concerns and Local Regulations |
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130 | (1) |
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6.3 Acid, Alkali, and Enzyme Extraction |
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130 | (2) |
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130 | (1) |
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131 | (1) |
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132 | (1) |
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132 | (1) |
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6.4 Microwave-Assisted Extraction |
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132 | (4) |
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6.4.1 Description of the Technology |
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132 | (1) |
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6.4.2 Applications and Further Developments |
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133 | (3) |
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6.5 Steam Distillation and Hydrodistillation |
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136 | (3) |
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6.5.1 Description of the Technology |
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136 | (2) |
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138 | (1) |
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6.6 Supercritical Fluid Extraction |
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139 | (1) |
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6.6.1 Description of the Technology |
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139 | (1) |
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6.6.2 Advantages and Applications |
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139 | (1) |
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6.7 Scale-Up and Economic Issues |
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140 | (4) |
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144 | (5) |
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Chapter 7 Conventional Purification and Isolation |
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149 | (24) |
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149 | (1) |
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149 | (5) |
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7.2.1 Adsorption Equilibria |
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150 | (1) |
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7.2.2 Fixed-Bed Adsorption: Process Description and Design Procedure |
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150 | (3) |
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7.2.3 Selective Adsorption by Molecularly Imprinted Polymers |
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153 | (1) |
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7.2.4 A Case Study of Food Waste Recovery by Adsorption |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (5) |
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7.3.1 Size-Exclusion Chromatography (SEC) or Gel-Filtration Chromatography (GFC) |
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154 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Ion-Exchange Chromatography (IEC) |
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154 | (1) |
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7.3.3 Affinity Chromatography (AC) |
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155 | (1) |
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7.3.4 Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography (HIC), Reversed-Phase Chromatography (RPC), and Reversed-Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC) |
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155 | (1) |
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156 | (3) |
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159 | (5) |
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159 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Concentration/Purification of Antioxidants |
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160 | (1) |
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7.4.3 Lactic Acid from Cheese Whey |
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160 | (1) |
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7.4.4 Biopeptides Fractionation |
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160 | (4) |
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164 | (9) |
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7.5.1 Industrial Applications: Whey Demineralization |
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165 | (1) |
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7.5.2 Industrial Applications: Lactic Acid Recovery |
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166 | (7) |
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Chapter 8 Conventional Product Formation |
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173 | (24) |
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173 | (1) |
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8.2 Technological Functionality and Quality Properties of Food Waste Components |
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174 | (3) |
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8.3 Product Design by Emulsification |
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177 | (8) |
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8.3.1 General Aspects of Emulsions |
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177 | (1) |
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8.3.2 Use of Waste Components as Emulsifiers |
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178 | (2) |
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8.3.3 Use of Lipids Recovered from Food Waste and By-Products |
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180 | (4) |
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8.3.4 Design and Development of Emulsified Food Ingredients Using Waste Components |
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184 | (1) |
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8.4 Product Design by Microencapsulation |
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185 | (12) |
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8.4.1 General Aspects of Microencapsulation |
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185 | (1) |
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8.4.2 Microencapsulation by Spray Drying |
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186 | (1) |
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8.4.3 Use of Waste Components as Coatings |
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187 | (1) |
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188 | (9) |
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SECTION III EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES |
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Chapter 9 Emerging Macroscopic Pretreatment |
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197 | (30) |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (4) |
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199 | (1) |
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200 | (1) |
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9.2.3 Drying Kinetics: Rates |
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200 | (1) |
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9.2.4 Drying Kinetics: Effective Diffusivity |
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201 | (1) |
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201 | (1) |
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9.3 Radio-Frequency Drying |
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202 | (5) |
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9.3.1 Principles of Drying of Biomaterials and Radio-Frequency Application |
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203 | (2) |
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9.3.2 Radio-Frequency Applications in Drying of Biomaterials |
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205 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Energy Considerations |
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206 | (1) |
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9.4 Electro-Osmotic Drying |
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207 | (4) |
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9.4.1 Principle of EOD of Semi-Solid Material |
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207 | (2) |
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9.4.2 Practical and Industrial Aspects of Operating EOD and its Problems |
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209 | (1) |
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9.4.3 Estimation of Electric Power Applications and Materials Suitable for EOD |
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210 | (1) |
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9.5 Low-Temperature Plasma |
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211 | (4) |
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9.5.1 Plasma Science and Technology |
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212 | (1) |
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9.5.2 Cold Plasma for Decontamination and Sterilization |
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212 | (3) |
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9.5.3 Enzyme Inactivation |
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215 | (1) |
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215 | (1) |
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9.6 High Hydrostatic Pressure |
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215 | (3) |
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218 | (9) |
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Chapter 10 Emerging Macro- and Micromolecules Separation |
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227 | (22) |
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227 | (1) |
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10.2 Colloidal Gas Aphrons (CGA) |
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227 | (10) |
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227 | (1) |
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228 | (1) |
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10.2.3 Characteristics of CGA |
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229 | (1) |
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230 | (2) |
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10.2.5 CGA-Based Separation Processes |
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232 | (2) |
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10.2.6 Separation of Proteins by CGA |
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234 | (1) |
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10.2.7 Application of CGA to the Recovery of Polyphenols from Wine-Making Waste |
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235 | (1) |
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236 | (1) |
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10.3 Ultrasound-Assisted Crystallization |
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237 | (3) |
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237 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Sonocrystallization of Lactose from Whey |
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238 | (1) |
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10.3.3 Sonocrystallization of Amino Acids |
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239 | (1) |
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240 | (1) |
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10.4 Pressurized Microwave Extraction |
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240 | (9) |
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240 | (1) |
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10.4.2 Applications, Safety, and Environmental Impact |
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241 | (8) |
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Chapter 11 Emerging Extraction |
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249 | (24) |
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249 | (1) |
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11.2 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) |
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249 | (2) |
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11.2.1 Mechanism and Principles |
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249 | (1) |
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250 | (1) |
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251 | (3) |
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11.3.1 Theoretical Rationale |
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251 | (2) |
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11.3.2 Practical Applications |
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253 | (1) |
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11.3.3 Extraction of Useful Substances from Waste Products in Food Technologies |
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253 | (1) |
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11.4 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) |
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254 | (3) |
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11.4.1 Basic Principles and Technical Aspects |
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254 | (1) |
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11.4.2 Effect of PEF on the Recovery of High Value Components from Food |
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255 | (1) |
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11.4.3 Effect of PEF on the Recovery of High Value Components from Food Waste |
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256 | (1) |
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11.4.4 Advantages and Industrial Feasibility |
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256 | (1) |
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11.5 High Voltage Electrical Discharge |
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257 | (2) |
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11.5.1 Basic Principles and Technical Aspects |
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257 | (1) |
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11.5.2 HVED-Assisted Recovery of High Added-Value Compounds from Plant Materials, Food Wastes, and By-Products |
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258 | (1) |
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11.5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of HVED-Assisted Extraction |
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259 | (1) |
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11.6 Emerging Membrane Extraction |
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259 | (14) |
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11.6.1 Membrane Pervaporation and Vapor Permeation |
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259 | (4) |
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11.6.2 Membrane Contactors |
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263 | (10) |
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Chapter 12 Emerging Purification and Isolation |
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273 | (20) |
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273 | (1) |
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273 | (4) |
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273 | (3) |
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276 | (1) |
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12.3 Aqueous Two-Phase System |
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277 | (5) |
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277 | (1) |
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278 | (4) |
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12.4 Ion-Exchange Membrane Chromatography |
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282 | (2) |
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282 | (1) |
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12.4.2 Technical Aspects of Ion-Exchange Membrane Chromatography |
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282 | (1) |
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283 | (1) |
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12.4.4 Implementation in the Dairy Industry |
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284 | (1) |
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284 | (9) |
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Chapter 13 Emerging Product Formation |
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293 | (28) |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (3) |
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13.2.1 Lipid-Based Delivery Systems |
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294 | (1) |
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13.2.2 Carbohydrate-Based Delivery Systems |
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294 | (3) |
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13.2.3 Protein-Based Delivery Systems |
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297 | (1) |
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13.3 Nanoencapsulation Methods and Scale-Up |
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297 | (4) |
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297 | (1) |
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13.3.2 High-Pressure Homogenization |
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297 | (2) |
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299 | (1) |
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13.3.4 Electrospinning and Electrospray |
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299 | (2) |
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13.3.5 Supercritical Fluid |
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301 | (1) |
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301 | (1) |
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301 | (5) |
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13.4.1 Definition and Application Examples |
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301 | (1) |
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13.4.2 Formulation Techniques |
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302 | (1) |
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13.4.3 High Energy Emulsification Methods |
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302 | (2) |
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13.4.4 Low-Energy Emulsification Methods |
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304 | (1) |
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13.4.5 Recent Food Applications |
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305 | (1) |
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306 | (2) |
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306 | (1) |
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306 | (2) |
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308 | (1) |
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13.5.4 Potential Limitations |
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308 | (1) |
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13.6 Pulsed Fluidized Bed Agglomeration |
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308 | (13) |
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308 | (1) |
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13.6.2 Fluid Bed Agglomeration |
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309 | (1) |
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13.6.3 Pulsed Fluid Bed Agglomeration |
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309 | (12) |
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SECTION IV COMMERCIALIZATION ASPECTS AND APPLICATIONS |
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Chapter 14 Cost and Safety Issues of Emerging Technologies Against Conventional Techniques |
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321 | (16) |
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321 | (1) |
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14.2 Assumptions and Calculations |
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322 | (3) |
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14.3 Conventional Techniques |
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325 | (3) |
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14.4 Emerging Technologies |
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328 | (4) |
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332 | (5) |
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Chapter 15 Patented and Commercialized Applications |
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337 | (24) |
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15.1 Scale-Up and Commercialization Problems |
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337 | (1) |
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15.2 Protection of Intellectual Properties |
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338 | (2) |
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15.3 Applications and Market Products |
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340 | (13) |
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15.3.1 Vegetable and Plant By-Products |
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340 | (4) |
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344 | (4) |
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15.3.3 Coffee By-Products |
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348 | (3) |
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15.3.4 Dairy, Animal, and Fishery By-Products |
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351 | (2) |
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15.4 Potential Use of Emerging Technologies |
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353 | (3) |
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356 | (5) |
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Chapter 16 Recovery and Applications of Enzymes from Food Wastes |
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361 | (22) |
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361 | (1) |
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16.2 Enzymes from Plant Food Processing Wastes |
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362 | (8) |
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16.2.1 Peroxidases (PODs) |
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362 | (5) |
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16.2.2 Polyphenol Oxidases (PPOs) |
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367 | (3) |
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370 | (1) |
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16.3 Fish and Seafood Processing Wastes |
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370 | (2) |
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372 | (11) |
| Subject Index |
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383 | |