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1 | (10) |
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1 | (2) |
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3 | (1) |
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1.3 Models and Experiments |
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3 | (2) |
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1.4 Bridging Length Scales |
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5 | (1) |
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1.5 Understanding of Nature, the Role of Science; Magic, Discovery and Models |
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6 | (5) |
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2 Electronic Structure of the Atom; the Periodic Table |
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11 | (34) |
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2.1 Protons, Neutrons and Electrons |
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11 | (1) |
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2.2 Rutherford's Model (1911) |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (3) |
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2.4 The Wave or Quantum Mechanical Model (Heisenberg/Schrodinger 1926); Quantum Numbers |
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15 | (8) |
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Intermezzo: A "derivation" of the Uncertainty Relation; Diffraction of Moving Particles at a Slit |
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16 | (3) |
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2.4.1 The Probability Amplitude |
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19 | (1) |
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2.4.2 Characterizing the Possible Energy States; the Quantum Numbers |
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20 | (3) |
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2.5 The Pauli Exclusion Principle and the "Aufbau Prinzip" |
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23 | (15) |
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Intermezzo: The Discoverers of the Periodic System; A First Example of a "Priority Battle" |
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28 | (4) |
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Epilogue: The Extent of the Periodic Table |
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32 | (2) |
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2.5.1 Atom Size and Ionization Energy |
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34 | (4) |
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2.6 The Shape of the Probability Density Distribution for the Electron |
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38 | (5) |
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43 | (2) |
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3 Chemical Bonding in Solids; with Excursions to Material Properties |
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45 | (74) |
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3.1 Attractive and Repulsive Forces; Thermal Expansion and Elastic Constants |
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45 | (6) |
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Intermezzo: The Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Large and Small Crystals |
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49 | (2) |
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3.2 Remarks on Model Types of Bonding |
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51 | (2) |
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3.3 Ionic Bonding; Lattice Energy and The Madelung Factor |
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53 | (8) |
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61 | (6) |
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67 | (38) |
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3.5.1 The Free Electron Models |
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68 | (11) |
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3.5.2 Zone or Band Models |
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79 | (17) |
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3.5.3 The Crystal Structure of Metals |
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96 | (9) |
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3.6 van der Waals Bonding |
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105 | (4) |
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109 | (7) |
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Epilogue: "How Science Really Happens" |
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113 | (3) |
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116 | (3) |
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119 | (112) |
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Intermezzo: Goniometry; the Beginning of Crystallography |
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120 | (3) |
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Intermezzo: Making Grain Boundaries Visible |
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123 | (1) |
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4.1 Geometric Description of Crystals |
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124 | (24) |
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4.1.1 Translation Lattice, Motif and Crystal Structure |
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124 | (9) |
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133 | (4) |
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Intermezzo: A Short Note on Point Groups, Crystallographic Point Groups, Plane Groups and Space Groups; Glide and Screw Operations |
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137 | (2) |
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4.1.3 The Bravais Categorization of Translation Lattices |
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139 | (3) |
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4.1.4 Description of Lattice Planes and Directions; Miller and Miller-Bravais Indices |
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142 | (6) |
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4.2 Crystal Structures of Elements |
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148 | (26) |
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4.2.1 Crystal Structures Derived from Close Packed Arrangements of Hard Spheres |
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150 | (12) |
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4.2.2 The Body Centred Cubic (b.c.c.) Crystal Structure |
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162 | (4) |
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4.2.3 Further Crystal Structures of Elements |
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166 | (4) |
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4.2.4 The Coordination Number |
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170 | (2) |
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4.2.5 Polymorphism and Allotropy |
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172 | (2) |
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4.3 The Notions Alloy, Solid Solution, Ordered Solid Solution and Compound |
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174 | (1) |
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4.4 Crystalline Solid Solutions and Compounds |
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175 | (21) |
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4.4.1 Substitutional Solid Solutions |
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175 | (7) |
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4.4.2 Interstitial Solid Solutions |
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182 | (11) |
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Intermezzo: Thermochemical Surface Engineering; Nitriding and Carburizing of Iron and Steels |
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193 | (3) |
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4.4.3 Crystal Structures of Further Materials |
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196 | (1) |
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4.5 Determination of the Crystal Structure; (X-Ray) Diffraction Analysis |
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196 | (7) |
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Intermezzo: The von Laue theory |
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199 | (4) |
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4.6 The Stereographic Projection |
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203 | (4) |
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4.7 The Texture of a Polycrystal |
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207 | (9) |
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208 | (5) |
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4.7.2 The Orientation Distribution Function |
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213 | (1) |
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4.7.3 The Inverse Pole Figure |
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214 | (2) |
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216 | (10) |
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4.8.1 Incommensurately Modulated Atomic Structures |
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216 | (4) |
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220 | (1) |
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Intermezzo: A Revolution in Crystallography; "Young" versus "Old" |
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220 | (5) |
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Epilogue: The Notion Crystal Revisited |
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225 | (1) |
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Appendix: How to Deal with Atoms at Unit-Cell Boundaries |
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226 | (2) |
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228 | (3) |
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5 The Crystal Imperfection; Structure Defects |
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231 | (52) |
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5.1 Point Defects (Zero-Dimensional) |
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232 | (6) |
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5.1.1 Singular Point Defects: Thermal and Constitutional Defects; Vacancies; Interstitial, Substitutional and Antistructure Atoms |
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232 | (4) |
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5.1.2 Combined Point Defects: Vacancy Pairs and Triple Defects; Schottky and Frenkel Defects |
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236 | (2) |
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5.2 Line Defects (One-Dimensional) |
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238 | (24) |
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5.2.1 The Edge Dislocation |
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239 | (2) |
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5.2.2 The Screw Dislocation |
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241 | (1) |
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5.2.3 Dislocation Line and Burgers Vector; Dislocation Density |
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242 | (1) |
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Intermezzo: A Historical Note About the Burgers Vector |
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243 | (3) |
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5.2.4 Strain Energy of a Dislocation |
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246 | (1) |
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5.2.5 Glide of Dislocations; Slip Systems |
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247 | (2) |
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Intermezzo: The Peierls Stress |
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249 | (3) |
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5.2.6 Dislocation Production: Frank-Read Source, Cross-Slip and Vacancy Condensation |
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252 | (5) |
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5.2.7 Climb of Dislocations |
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257 | (1) |
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5.2.8 Partial and Sessile Dislocations |
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258 | (4) |
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5.3 Planar Defects (Two-Dimensional) |
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262 | (16) |
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262 | (8) |
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5.3.2 Twin Boundaries and Stacking Faults |
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270 | (1) |
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5.3.3 Antiphase Boundaries |
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271 | (1) |
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5.3.4 Coherent and Incoherent Interfaces |
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272 | (4) |
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Intermezzo: Coherent and Incoherent Interfaces versus Coherent and Incoherent Diffraction |
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276 | (2) |
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5.4 Volume Defects (Three-Dimensional) |
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278 | (3) |
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5.4.1 Second Phase Particles |
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278 | (1) |
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279 | (2) |
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281 | (2) |
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6 Analysis of the Microstructure; Analysis of Structural Imperfection: Light and Electron Microscopical and (X-Ray) Diffraction Methods |
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283 | (74) |
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284 | (4) |
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6.1.1 The Paraxial Approximation |
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285 | (2) |
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287 | (1) |
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288 | (4) |
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6.3 The (Reflected) Light Optical Microscope |
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292 | (4) |
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6.3.1 The Magnifier ("Loupe") |
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292 | (2) |
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6.3.2 The Compound Microscope |
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294 | (2) |
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296 | (2) |
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298 | (2) |
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6.5.1 Minimal Image Construction |
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298 | (1) |
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6.5.2 Maximal Magnification |
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299 | (1) |
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6.6 Bright and Dark Field and Other Imaging Techniques by Light Optical Microscopy |
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300 | (7) |
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6.6.1 Bright Field Microscopy |
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300 | (1) |
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6.6.2 Dark Field Microscopy |
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301 | (2) |
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6.6.3 Phase-Contrast Microscopy |
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303 | (1) |
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6.6.4 Interference Microscopy |
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304 | (2) |
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6.6.5 Polarized Light Microscopy |
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306 | (1) |
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6.7 Resolution Beyond the Diffraction Limit: "Supermicroscopy" |
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307 | (7) |
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6.7.1 Confocal Microscopy |
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308 | (3) |
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6.7.2 Stimulated Emission Depletion Microscopy (STED) |
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311 | (3) |
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6.8 Transmission Electron Microscopy |
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314 | (19) |
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6.8.1 Basic Constitution and Action of the TEM; Imaging and Diffraction Modes |
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315 | (3) |
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6.8.2 The Diffraction Pattern; the Zone Law |
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318 | (1) |
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6.8.3 Diffraction Contrast Images; Bright Field and Dark Field "Imaging" |
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318 | (3) |
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6.8.4 Examples of Bright and Dark Field TEM Images |
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321 | (4) |
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6.8.5 Convergent Beam Electron Diffraction (CBED); Microdiffraction; Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) |
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325 | (3) |
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6.8.6 High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM) |
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328 | (3) |
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6.8.7 Analytical Electron Microscopy (AEM); Chemical Composition Maps |
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331 | (2) |
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6.9 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) |
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333 | (6) |
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6.9.1 Secondary Electron Images |
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335 | (2) |
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6.9.2 Back-Scattered Electron Images |
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337 | (1) |
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6.9.3 Chemical Composition Maps; Electron Probe Micro-analysis (EPMA) |
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337 | (2) |
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6.10 X-ray Diffraction Analysis of the Imperfect Microstructure |
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339 | (15) |
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6.10.1 Determination of Crystallite Size and Microstrain |
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341 | (5) |
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6.10.2 Determination of (Residual) Macrostress |
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346 | (4) |
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Intermezzo: Grain Interaction |
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350 | (1) |
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Intermezzo: Surface Anisotropy and Thin Films |
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351 | (2) |
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Intermezzo: Colossal Stress and Texture Gradients in (Even Ultra-) Thin Films |
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353 | (1) |
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354 | (3) |
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357 | (44) |
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358 | (1) |
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359 | (1) |
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7.3 The Notions Equilibrium and Stationary State; Internal Energy, Entropy, (Helmholtz) Free Energy and Gibbs Energy |
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359 | (6) |
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7.4 Degrees of Freedom; The Phase Rule |
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365 | (2) |
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367 | (24) |
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7.5.1 One Component (unary) Systems |
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367 | (2) |
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Intermezzo: Entropy of Fusion and the Structure of Liquids |
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369 | (1) |
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370 | (18) |
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388 | (3) |
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7.6 Microstructure Development with Reference to the Phase Diagram |
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391 | (8) |
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Epilogue: The Topology of Phase Diagrams; Some Rules |
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396 | (3) |
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399 | (2) |
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401 | (66) |
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8.1 The Continuum Approach to Diffusion; Fick's First and Second Laws |
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401 | (4) |
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8.2 The Atomistic Approach to Diffusion |
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405 | (3) |
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Intermezzo: Brownian Motion |
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406 | (2) |
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8.3 Solutions of Fick's Laws |
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408 | (3) |
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8.4 Concentration Dependence of the Diffusion Coefficient; the Boltzmann--Matano Analysis |
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411 | (3) |
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8.5 Diffusion Mechanisms in Crystalline Systems |
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414 | (3) |
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8.5.1 Exchange Mechanisms |
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414 | (1) |
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8.5.2 The Vacancy Mechanism; Substitutional Diffusion |
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415 | (1) |
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8.5.3 Interstitial Diffusion |
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416 | (1) |
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8.6 The Jump Frequency and the Activation Energy of Diffusion |
|
|
417 | (10) |
|
8.6.1 The Determination of ΔHvac |
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|
423 | (3) |
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8.6.2 The Determination of ΔHmig |
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|
426 | (1) |
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8.7 Intrinsic Diffusion and Material Flow |
|
|
427 | (17) |
|
8.7.1 The Kirkendall Effect |
|
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427 | (5) |
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Intermezzo: A Revolution in Diffusion Understanding; "Young" versus "Old" |
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432 | (5) |
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8.7.2 From Thermodynamics to Kinetics |
|
|
437 | (7) |
|
8.8 Diffusion in a State of Stress |
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444 | (6) |
|
8.8.1 Pressure/Hydrostatic State of Stress |
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444 | (1) |
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445 | (5) |
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8.9 Microstructure and Diffusion |
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450 | (11) |
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8.9.1 Diffusion Along the Low-Angle Symmetrical Tilt Boundary |
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453 | (2) |
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8.9.2 Diffusion Along a Moving Grain Boundary |
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|
455 | (1) |
|
Intermezzo: Priority and Scientific Decency |
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|
456 | (5) |
|
Appendix: Concentration-Depth Profiles in Thin Layer Systems |
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461 | (3) |
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464 | (3) |
|
9 Phase Transformations: Introduction and Typology |
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|
467 | (66) |
|
9.1 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Phase Transformations; Thermal Activation and the Activation Energy |
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|
469 | (2) |
|
9.2 Energetics of Nucleation; Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Transformations; Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Nucleation |
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|
471 | (5) |
|
Intermezzo: Nucleation of AIN in Fe--Al Alloy |
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|
474 | (2) |
|
9.3 Diffusional and Diffusionless Transformations |
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476 | (2) |
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9.4 Diffusional Transformations; Examples |
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478 | (20) |
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9.4.1 Age-Hardening Alloys; "Clusters", Transition and Equilibrium Precipitates |
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478 | (3) |
|
9.4.2 Eutectoid Transformation |
|
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481 | (2) |
|
Intermezzo: The Fe-C System; Steels and Cast Irons |
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|
483 | (6) |
|
9.4.3 Discontinuous Transformation |
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489 | (4) |
|
9.4.4 The Widmanstatten Morphology |
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493 | (1) |
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9.4.5 Grain-Boundary Wetting |
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494 | (4) |
|
9.5 Diffusionless Transformations; Examples |
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498 | (33) |
|
9.5.1 The Massive Transformation |
|
|
499 | (5) |
|
9.5.2 The Martensitic Transformation |
|
|
504 | (6) |
|
Intermezzo: The Fe-C and Fe-N Phase Diagrams |
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|
510 | (14) |
|
Intermezzo: Shape-Memory Alloys |
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524 | (2) |
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Intermezzo: The Hardness of Iron-Based Interstitial Martensitic Specimens |
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526 | (1) |
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Intermezzo: Tempering of Iron-Based Interstitial Martensitic Specimens |
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526 | (5) |
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|
531 | (2) |
|
10 Phase Transformations: Kinetics |
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533 | (48) |
|
10.1 Time--Temperature--Transformation (TIT) Diagrams and Continuous-Cooling-Transformation (CCT) Diagrams |
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|
534 | (4) |
|
10.2 Thermal History and the Stage of Transformation |
|
|
538 | (2) |
|
10.3 The Transformation Rate; the Additivity Rule |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
10.4 Heterogeneous Phase Transformations as a Composite Phenomenon: Nucleation, Growth and Impingement |
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|
540 | (2) |
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542 | (3) |
|
10.5.1 Continuous Nucleation |
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543 | (1) |
|
10.5.2 Pre-existing Nuclei |
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|
543 | (2) |
|
10.5.3 Other Modes of Nucleation |
|
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545 | (1) |
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545 | (3) |
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10.6.1 Interface-Controlled Growth |
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546 | (1) |
|
10.6.2 Diffusion-Controlled Growth |
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|
547 | (1) |
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|
547 | (1) |
|
10.7 The Activation Energies for Nucleation and Growth |
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548 | (1) |
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10.8 Extended Volume and Extended Transformed Fraction |
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549 | (2) |
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10.9 Modes of Impingement |
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551 | (3) |
|
10.10 The Transformed Fraction |
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|
554 | (2) |
|
10.11 The Classical and Generalized Johnson-Mehl-Avrami Equation; the "Additivity Rule" Revisited |
|
|
556 | (2) |
|
10.12 The Effective Activation Energy |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
10.13 Experimental Determination of the Degree of Transformation; Dilatometry and Calorimetry |
|
|
559 | (4) |
|
10.14 Fitting of Kinetic Models |
|
|
563 | (3) |
|
10.15 Direct Determination of the Effective Activation Energy and the Growth Exponent |
|
|
566 | (6) |
|
10.15.1 Determination of the Effective Activation Energy; Isothermal Anneals |
|
|
566 | (1) |
|
10.15.2 Determination of the Effective Activation Energy; Isochronal Anneals |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
10.15.3 Maximal Transformation Rate and Determination of the Effective Activation Energy |
|
|
568 | (2) |
|
10.15.4 Determination of the Growth Exponent; Isothermal Anneals |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
10.15.5 Determination of the Growth Exponent; Isochronal Anneals |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
10.15.6 Time and Temperature Dependences of the Effective Activation Energy and the Growth Exponent; Determination of the Constant Activation Energies of Nucleation and Growth |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
10.16 Hierarchy of Models; Some Notes |
|
|
572 | (6) |
|
Epilogue: The Coupling of Thermodynamics to Kinetics |
|
|
576 | (2) |
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|
578 | (3) |
|
11 Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth |
|
|
581 | (40) |
|
|
582 | (7) |
|
11.1.1 Dislocation Annihilation and Rearrangement |
|
|
583 | (6) |
|
11.1.2 Kinetics of Recovery |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
|
589 | (9) |
|
11.2.1 "Nucleation" of Recrystallization |
|
|
590 | (6) |
|
Intermezzo: The History of an Idea; the Subgrain as Origin of Recrystallization |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
11.2.2 Kinetics of Recrystallization |
|
|
597 | (1) |
|
|
598 | (20) |
|
11.3.1 The Grain-Boundary Network; on Grain-Boundary/Interfacial Energy and Tension |
|
|
598 | (5) |
|
Intermezzo: Interface Stabilized Microstructures |
|
|
603 | (2) |
|
11.3.2 Grain-Boundary Curvature-Driven Growth |
|
|
605 | (3) |
|
11.3.3 Kinetics of Grain Growth; Inhibition of Grain Growth |
|
|
608 | (6) |
|
11.3.4 Abnormal Grain Growth |
|
|
614 | (2) |
|
11.3.5 Particle Coarsening; Ostwald Ripening |
|
|
616 | (2) |
|
|
618 | (3) |
|
12 Mechanical Strength of Materials |
|
|
621 | (102) |
|
12.1 Elastic versus Plastic Deformation; Ductile and Brittle Materials |
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
12.2 Basic Modes of Uniaxial Deformation; Concepts of Stress and Strain; Uniaxial Elastic Deformation Laws |
|
|
623 | (7) |
|
Intermezzo: Short History of the Poisson Constant |
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
Intermezzo: Negative Poisson Constant |
|
|
628 | (2) |
|
12.3 Elastically Isotropic and Anisotropic Materials |
|
|
630 | (2) |
|
12.4 Elastic Deformation Upon Three Axial and Biaxial Loading |
|
|
632 | (6) |
|
12.5 Elastic Strain Energy |
|
|
638 | (2) |
|
12.6 Rubber Elasticity; Elastomeric Behaviour |
|
|
640 | (3) |
|
12.7 Viscoelasticity/Anelasticity; Mechanical Hysteresis |
|
|
643 | (4) |
|
12.8 Plastic Deformation Characteristics |
|
|
647 | (1) |
|
12.9 The Tensile Stress--Strain Curve; True Stress and True Strain |
|
|
648 | (12) |
|
12.9.1 Strain and Strain Rate Due to Dislocation Movement |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
12.9.2 The Yield Drop Phenomenon; Cottrell--Bilby Atmospheres |
|
|
655 | (4) |
|
12.9.3 Shear Yielding and Craze Yielding |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
12.10 Yielding Criteria in Cases of Two- and Three-Axial Loading |
|
|
660 | (4) |
|
Intermezzo: Application of the von Mises Criterion to Predict the Location of Failure in Ball Bearings |
|
|
662 | (2) |
|
12.11 Critical Resolved Shear Stress; the Plastic Deformation of Single Crystals |
|
|
664 | (5) |
|
12.12 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystals |
|
|
669 | (2) |
|
12.13 Hardness Parameters; Macroscopic, Microscopic and Nanoscopic |
|
|
671 | (10) |
|
Intermezzo: The Hardest Materials |
|
|
672 | (2) |
|
Intermezzo: Combined Nanoindentation and Scanning Probe Microscopy |
|
|
674 | (5) |
|
Intermezzo: Hardness-Depth Profiling on Nanoscale |
|
|
679 | (2) |
|
12.14 Strengthening, Hardening Mechanisms (of Metals in Particular) |
|
|
681 | (9) |
|
12.14.1 Strain Hardening (Work Hardening) |
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
12.14.2 Grain Size; The Hall-Petch Relation; Nanosized Materials |
|
|
683 | (3) |
|
12.14.3 Solid Solution Hardening |
|
|
686 | (2) |
|
12.14.4 Precipitation/Dispersion Strengthening |
|
|
688 | (2) |
|
12.15 Failure by Fracture; Crack Propagation |
|
|
690 | (7) |
|
|
697 | (9) |
|
Intermezzo: Whiskering; Interplay of Internal Stress Gradients and Coble Creep |
|
|
699 | (6) |
|
|
705 | (1) |
|
|
706 | (5) |
|
12.18 Residual, Internal Stresses |
|
|
711 | (9) |
|
Epilogue: The Essence of Materials Science; Optimizing the Fatigue Strength of Ferritic Steels by Nit riding |
|
|
715 | (5) |
|
|
720 | (3) |
Index |
|
723 | |