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E-raamat: Highway Engineering: Pavements, Materials and Control of Quality

(Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece)
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  • Ilmumisaeg: 24-Nov-2014
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781040057346
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  • Formaat: EPUB+DRM
  • Ilmumisaeg: 24-Nov-2014
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781040057346

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An International Textbook, from A to Z

Highway Engineering: Pavements, Materials and Control of Quality covers the basic principles of pavement management, highlights recent advancements, and details the latest industry standards and techniques in the global market. Utilizing the authors more than 30 years of teaching, researching, and consulting experience, this text focuses on the design, construction, maintenance, and management of pavements for roads and highways, and covers the main topics in highway engineering. The author integrates pavement materials, material testing for acceptability and quality assurance, asphalt mix design, flexible and rigid pavement design, construction, maintenance and strengthening procedures, quality control of production and acceptance of asphalts, pavement evaluation, asphalt plants, and pavement recycling. He also includes both European and American (ASTM and AASHTO) standards and practice, and is extensively illustrated with references, tables, graphs, charts, and photographs.

The book contains 18 chapters that cover:













Soils for roadworks Aggregates for unbound, hydraulically bound materials, and bituminous mixtures Bitumen and bituminous binders Laboratory tests and properties of paving bitumen and bitumen emulsion Hot and cold bituminous mixtures Fundamental mechanical properties of bituminous mixtures and testing Production, transportation, laying, and compaction of bituminous mixtures Quality control and acceptance of bituminous mixtures Methods for determining stresses and strains in pavements Pavement design and construction Thickness design methodologies for flexible and rigid pavements Pavement maintenance Rehabilitation and strengthening Pavement evaluation Equipment for measuring surface and structural characteristics Pavement management Pavement recycling









Written for civil engineering students and engineers engaged in highway projects or laboratory testing, Highway Engineering: Pavements, Materials and Control of Quality covers pavement engineering comprehensively as a textbook for undergraduates and graduates, and a valuable reference for practicing professionals.

Arvustused

" a complete book covering all aspects of road pavements from constituent materials, to design and maintenance; management to recycling. a valuable resource for civil engineering students as well as researchers and practitioners working in asphalt and pavement engineering. As a bonus, readers will also find in-depth explanations of major standards from the USA, UK, EUROPE and Australia on material characterization, design, and management." Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

"The author has crafted this book to serve as a "one-stop centre" for any information related to highway engineering. It begins with raw materials for asphalt, mix design, asphalt production, construction and maintenance. This book tells all and is beneficial to academics and practising engineers as well." Professor Dr. Meor Othman Hamzah, Universiti Sains Malaysia

"This is a great book. It combines state-of-the art scientific knowledge with practical easy-to-use guidelines for highway engineers." Professor Ezio Santagata, Politecnico di Torino, Italy

"The author has developed a very good work. He has compared the main standards, as ASTM, AASHTO, European Standards. This book presents the state of the art of pavements and I really recommend its use to the graduate and post-graduate course." Rita Moura Fortes, UFAM Universidade Federal do Amazonas (Amazonas Federal University), Brazil

"The book provides a golden thread linking the complete highway engineering story from material origin and properties ultimately to pavement management and recycling and everything in between a total picture for the dedicated student." Professor Wynand J vd M Steyn, University of Pretoria, South Africa

"This new book is a useful addition to the library of books in english about highway engineering, the extensive coverage of which is all highly relevant and should make it a favourite with most highway engineers and engineering students. Having adjacent sections on the European, American and/or Australian standards and techniques for various aspects makes it very useful to students looking at different approaches, to practising engineers working in different countries, and to researchers looking to extend the knowledge from existing practice. Dr J C (Cliff) Nicholls, TRL Limited, UK

"The most impressive section of the book to my mind, which is not covered in nearly as much depth in other texts, is the treatment of bituminous materials in particular their characteristics, appropriate methods to characterize their performance in the laboratory, and means of building and maintaining a road using these materials. In addition the book provides a comprehensive coverage of the constituent layers of a road pavement, the material properties of these layers and associated laboratory tests required to characterize these. The different types of methods appropriate to structural design are covered nicely, as are methods of recycling and maintenance." Michael Burrow, Senior Lecturer, University of Birmingham, UK

Preface xxxv
Acknowledgements xxxvii
Author xxxix
1 Soils
1(50)
1.1 The formation of soils
1(1)
1.2 Soil fractions
2(2)
1.3 Physical properties of soils
4(3)
1.3.1 Moisture content
5(1)
1.3.2 Void ratio or index
5(1)
1.3.3 Porosity
5(1)
1.3.4 Percentage of air voids
5(1)
1.3.5 Percentage of water voids
6(1)
1.3.6 Degree of saturation
6(1)
1.3.7 Density and specific gravity of soil particles
6(1)
1.3.8 Density and unit weight of soil in place (in situ)
6(1)
1.3.9 Density of saturated soil
7(1)
1.3.10 Other useful relationships
7(1)
1.3.11 Laboratory maximum density of soils
7(1)
1.4 Basic soil tests
7(9)
1.4.1 Particle size analysis
7(1)
1.4.1.1 Particle size distribution by sieving
8(1)
1.4.1.2 Particle size distribution by sedimentation
8(1)
1.4.1.3 The usefulness of aggregate gradation
9(1)
1.4.2 Liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index
10(2)
1.4.3 Relationships between IP, w, and wp
12(1)
1.4.4 Alternative method to determine the liquid limit -- cone penetrometer
12(1)
1.4.5 Moisture-laboratory density relationship
13(1)
1.4.6 Proctor compaction test (modified) by American standards
13(2)
1.4.7 Proctor compaction test by European standards
15(1)
1.4.8 Moisture condition value test
15(1)
1.5 Soil classification
16(9)
1.5.1 AASHTO soil classification system
17(1)
1.5.1.1 Group index of soils
17(2)
1.5.2 Unified soil classification system (ASTM system)
19(1)
1.5.3 The European classification system
19(6)
1.5.4 The UK soil classification systems
25(1)
1.6 Soil bearing capacity tests
25(7)
1.6.1 CBR laboratory test
25(1)
1.6.1.1 CBR test procedure according to ASTM D 1883 (2007)
26(3)
1.6.1.2 CBR test procedure according to CEN EN 13286-47 (2012)
29(1)
1.6.1.3 Variations on determining the CBR value
29(1)
1.6.2 CBR in situ
29(1)
1.6.3 Dynamic cone penetrometer
30(1)
1.6.4 Correlations between CBR and index properties of soil material
31(1)
1.7 Plate bearing test -- modulus of reaction (k)
32(1)
1.7.1 Correlation between CBR and k value
33(1)
1.8 Resistance R value test
33(1)
1.9 Elastic modulus and resilient modulus of soils
33(6)
1.9.1 Repeated triaxial test -- resilient modulus test
34(1)
1.9.2 Correlation between resilient modulus and CBR
35(1)
1.9.3 Dynamic plate test
36(2)
1.9.4 Springbox equipment
38(1)
1.9.5 Correlation between mechanical parameters of soils and soil classification groups
39(1)
1.10 Compaction of soil materials on site
39(3)
1.11 Density tests in situ
42(9)
1.11.1 Sand-cone method
42(1)
1.11.2 Rubber balloon method
43(1)
1.11.3 Nuclear method
44(1)
1.11.4 Drive-cylinder method
45(1)
1.11.5 Complex impedance method
45(1)
References
46(5)
2 Aggregates
51(44)
2.1 General
51(1)
2.2 Crushed aggregates
51(1)
2.3 Natural aggregates
52(1)
2.4 Slags
53(1)
2.5 Mine waste
53(1)
2.6 Demolition materials
53(1)
2.7 Artificial aggregates
53(1)
2.8 Recycled (pulverised) aggregates
53(1)
2.9 Aggregate sizes
54(1)
2.10 Aggregate tests
54(1)
2.11 Geometrical properties determination tests
54(12)
2.11.1 Particle size distribution - sieving method
54(4)
2.11.1.1 Aggregate size
58(1)
2.11.1.2 Sieving procedure and aggregate gradation curve determination
59(1)
2.11.2 Particle shape tests of coarse aggregates
60(1)
2.11.2.1 Flakiness index test
60(1)
2.11.2.2 Shape index test
61(1)
2.11.3 Flat particles, elongated particles or flat and elongated particles test
61(1)
2.11.4 Crushed and broken surfaces test
62(1)
2.11.5 Flow coefficient test
62(1)
2.11.6 Assessment of cleanness of fine aggregates and fines
62(1)
2.11.6.1 Sand equivalent test
63(1)
2.11.6.2 Methylene blue test
64(2)
2.11.6.3 Grading of fines
66(1)
2.12 Physical properties determination tests
66(19)
2.12.1 Resistance to fragmentation and polishing/abrasion tests
66(1)
2.12.1.1 Resistance to fragmentation by the Los Angeles test
67(1)
2.12.1.2 Resistance to impact test
68(1)
2.12.1.3 Polished stone value test
69(2)
2.12.1.4 Aggregate abrasion value test
71(1)
2.12.1.5 Resistance to wear by the micro-Deval test
71(4)
2.12.1.6 Resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres -- Nordic test
75(1)
2.12.2 Particle density and water absorption tests -- general
76(1)
2.12.2.1 Determination of density of aggregate particles between 31.5 and 63 mm by wire-basket method
77(1)
2.12.2.2 Determination of density of aggregate particles between 4 and 31.5 mm -- pyknometer method
78(1)
2.12.2.3 Determination of density of aggregate particles between 0.063 and 4 mm -- pyknometer method
79(1)
2.12.2.4 Determination of predried particle density of aggregates (normative methods)
80(1)
2.12.2.5 Particle density of filler -- pyknometer method
80(1)
2.12.2.6 Determination of density of aggregate mix
81(1)
2.12.2.7 Determination of loose bulk density and voids
81(1)
2.12.3 Thermal and weathering tests
82(1)
2.12.3.1 Magnesium sulfate test
82(1)
2.12.3.2 Determination of resistance to freezing and thawing
82(1)
2.12.3.3 Determination of resistance to thermal shock
83(1)
2.12.3.4 Boiling test for `Sonnenbrand' signs on basalts
83(1)
2.12.4 Water content test
84(1)
2.12.5 Voids of dry compacted filler (Rigden test)
84(1)
2.12.6 Delta ring and ball test of filler for bituminous mixtures
85(1)
2.13 Chemical properties tests
85(3)
2.13.1 Petrographic description of aggregates
85(1)
2.13.2 Determination of lightweight contamination
85(1)
2.13.3 Determination of acid-soluble sulfates
85(1)
2.13.4 Determination of total sulfur content
85(1)
2.13.5 Unsoundness tests for blast-furnace and steel slags
86(1)
2.13.5.1 Dicalcium silicate disintegration of air-cooled blast-furnace slag
86(1)
2.13.5.2 Iron disintegration of air-cooled blast-furnace slag
86(1)
2.13.5.3 Volume stability (expansion) of steel slags
86(1)
2.13.6 Water solubility of filler and aggregates
86(1)
2.13.7 Water susceptibility of fillers for bituminous mixtures
87(1)
2.13.8 Water-soluble constituents in filler
87(1)
2.13.9 Calcium carbonate content of limestone filler aggregate
87(1)
2.13.10 Calcium hydroxide content of mixed filler
87(1)
2.14 Blending two or more aggregates
88(7)
2.14.1 Trial-and-error method
88(1)
2.14.2 Mathematical methods
88(1)
2.14.2.1 Linear equation method
88(3)
2.14.2.2 Least squares method
91(1)
2.14.3 Graphical method
91(1)
References
91(4)
3 Bitumen, bituminous binders and anti-stripping agents
95(78)
3.1 General
95(1)
3.1.1 Terminology today
96(1)
3.2 Natural asphalt
96(3)
3.2.1 Trinidad asphalt
97(1)
3.2.2 Venezuela and other natural asphalts (pitch lake asphalts)
98(1)
3.2.3 Rock asphalt and gilsonite
98(1)
3.2.4 Other natural rock asphalts
98(1)
3.3 Tar
99(1)
3.4 Manufactured bitumen
99(14)
3.4.1 Groups and grades of bitumen
101(1)
3.4.1.1 Paving grade bitumens
101(1)
3.4.1.2 Hard paving grade bitumens
102(2)
3.4.1.3 Oxidised bitumen
104(2)
3.4.2 Performance graded asphalt binders -- superpave
106(1)
3.4.3 Chemical composition of bitumen
107(3)
3.4.3.1 Asphaltenes
110(1)
3.4.3.2 Maltenes
111(1)
3.4.4 Changes in bitumen composition during distillation, mixing, laying and time in service
111(2)
3.5 Cut-back and fluxed bituminous binders
113(4)
3.5.1 Cut-back and fluxed bitumens according to CEN EN 15322 (2013)
113(3)
3.5.2 Cut-back asphalts according to American standards
116(1)
3.6 Bitumen emulsions
117(15)
3.6.1 Types and classifications of bitumen emulsions
119(1)
3.6.2 Usage of bitumen emulsions with respect to setting rate
120(1)
3.6.3 Emulsifiers
120(5)
3.6.4 Breaking mechanism of bitumen emulsions
125(2)
3.6.5 Production of bitumen emulsions
127(1)
3.6.6 Properties of bitumen emulsion
128(1)
3.6.6.1 Storage stability of bitumen emulsion
128(1)
3.6.6.2 Viscosity of bitumen emulsion
129(2)
3.6.6.3 Adhesiveness of bitumen emulsion
131(1)
3.6.6.4 Breaking rate of bitumen emulsion
131(1)
3.7 Anti-stripping agents
132(7)
3.7.1 Types of anti-stripping agents
133(1)
3.7.2 Usage of anti-stripping agents
133(1)
3.7.2.1 Anti-stripping agents in surface dressings
133(1)
3.7.2.2 Anti-stripping agents in asphalts
133(1)
3.7.3 Test methods for determining susceptibility to stripping or affinity between aggregate and bitumen
134(1)
3.7.3.1 Rolling bottle test method
134(1)
3.7.3.2 Static test method
135(1)
3.7.3.3 Boiling water stripping test method
135(1)
3.7.3.4 Water sensitivity of bituminous specimens by determination of the indirect tensile
136(1)
3.7.3.5 Retained compressive strength index test
137(1)
3.7.3.6 Retained marshall stability test method
138(1)
3.7.3.7 Vialit plate shock test method
138(1)
3.7.3.8 Determination of cohesion of bituminous binders with the pendulum (Vialit) test
139(1)
3.8 Modified bitumens and special bitumens
139(18)
3.8.1 Usage and role of modified bitumen
140(1)
3.8.2 Bitumen modifiers, methods of modification and main changes to the properties of the bitumen
141(1)
3.8.3 Modification by thermoplastic elastomers
142(3)
3.8.3.1 Characteristic properties of elastomer-modified bitumen
145(1)
3.8.3.2 Characteristic properties of asphalts with elastomer-modified bitumen
145(2)
3.8.4 Modification of bitumen by thermoplastic polymers (plastics)
147(1)
3.8.4.1 Characteristic properties of modified bitumen and asphalts with thermoplastic polymers
148(1)
3.8.5 Modified bitumen with thermosetting polymers (resins)
148(1)
3.8.5.1 Characteristic properties of asphalts with thermosetting polymers
149(1)
3.8.6 Modification by chemical modifiers
150(1)
3.8.7 Natural asphalts as additives
151(1)
3.8.8 Addition of fillers to bitumen
151(1)
3.8.9 Addition of fibres to bitumen
151(1)
3.8.10 Addition of hydrocarbons
152(1)
3.8.11 Special bitumens
152(1)
3.8.11.1 Multigrade bitumens
152(1)
3.8.11.2 Fuel-resistant bitumens
153(1)
3.8.11.3 Coloured bitumen
153(1)
3.8.11.4 Bitumens for joint and crack filling
153(1)
3.8.12 Specifications of polymer-modified bitumens
154(1)
3.8.13 Proposed grades of modified bitumen
154(3)
3.9 Handling of bituminous binders
157(16)
3.9.1 Transportation delivery
157(1)
3.9.2 Storage
158(1)
3.9.3 Temperatures of bituminous binders at stages of usage
158(1)
3.9.4 Health, safety and environmental issues of bitumens
159(1)
3.9.4.1 Skin burns
160(1)
3.9.4.2 Inhalation of vapour and fumes
160(1)
3.9.4.3 Toxicity of bitumen
161(1)
3.9.4.4 Contact with water
162(1)
3.9.4.5 Combustion
162(1)
3.9.4.6 Skin and eye contamination
162(1)
3.9.4.7 Environmental aspects of bitumens
162(2)
References
164(9)
4 Laboratory tests and properties of bitumen and bitumen emulsion
173(48)
4.1 General
173(1)
4.2 Penetration test
173(2)
4.3 Softening point test (Left)
175(1)
4.4 Penetration index
176(1)
4.5 Ductility test
177(1)
4.6 Force ductility test
178(1)
4.7 Elastic recovery test
179(1)
4.8 Viscosity
180(8)
4.8.1 Types of viscometers
181(1)
4.8.2 Viscosity tests by rotational viscometers
182(1)
4.8.2.1 Rotating spindle viscometer
182(2)
4.8.2.2 Cone and plate viscometer
184(1)
4.8.2.3 Rotational paddle viscometer
184(1)
4.8.3 Viscosity test by capillary viscometers
184(1)
4.8.4 Viscosity test by efflux or cup viscometers
185(1)
4.8.5 Viscosity tests by shear plate viscometers
186(1)
4.8.5.1 Sliding plate viscometer
186(1)
4.8.5.2 Dynamic shear rheometer
186(2)
4.9 Fraass breaking point
188(1)
4.10 Heukelom chart -- bitumen test data chart
189(1)
4.11 Resistance to hardening tests
190(3)
4.11.1 Rolling thin oven test (RTOT) and rotating flask test (RFT)
190(1)
4.11.2 Thin film oven test (TFOT) method
191(1)
4.11.3 Accelerated long-term ageing/conditioning by the rotating cylinder method (RCAT)
192(1)
4.12 Flash and fire point -- Cleveland open cup method
193(1)
4.13 Solubility test
194(1)
4.14 Tensile test
194(1)
4.15 Cohesion with pendulum test
194(1)
4.16 Storage stability test
195(1)
4.17 Mineral matter or ash in asphalt materials
195(1)
4.18 Capillary-stoppered pycnometer test for determination of density and specific gravity of bitumen
195(1)
4.19 Determination of water in bitumen by distillation method
196(1)
4.20 Bitumen emulsion tests
196(9)
4.20.1 Particle polarity test
196(1)
4.20.2 Breaking value of cationic bitumen emulsion -- mineral filler method
197(1)
4.20.3 Mixing stability with cement of bitumen emulsions
197(1)
4.20.4 Determination of fines mixing time of cationic bitumen emulsions
197(1)
4.20.5 Determination of penetration power of bitumen emulsions
198(1)
4.20.6 Determination of water content in bitumen emulsions -- azeotropic distillation method
198(1)
4.20.7 Determination of bitumen residue by evaporation of bitumen emulsion
199(1)
4.20.8 Determination of bitumen residue by moisture analyser
199(1)
4.20.9 Determination of residual binder and oil distillate from bitumen emulsions by distillation
200(1)
4.20.10 Determination of efflux time of bitumen emulsion by the efflux viscometer
201(1)
4.20.11 Dynamic viscosity test
201(1)
4.20.12 Determination of residue on sieving and storage stability by sieving
201(1)
4.20.13 Determination of settling tendency after n-days
202(1)
4.20.14 Adhesivity of bituminous emulsions by water immersion test
203(1)
4.20.14.1 With emulsion of limited storage stability (breaking index <120)
203(1)
4.20.14.2 With emulsions that can be stored (breaking index >120)
203(1)
4.20.15 Coating ability and water resistance test
204(1)
4.20.16 Demulsibility test
204(1)
4.20.17 Identification test for RS cationic bitumen emulsion
205(1)
4.21 Mechanical properties of bitumen
205(8)
4.21.1 Viscoelastic behaviour of bitumen
205(2)
4.21.2 Stiffness of bitumen
207(1)
4.21.3 Determination of stiffness modulus of bitumen
208(1)
4.21.4 Estimation of stiffness modulus
209(1)
4.21.5 Determination of tensile strength of bitumen
209(2)
4.21.6 Prediction of strain at break
211(1)
4.21.7 Flexural creep stiffness
211(2)
4.21.8 Fatigue resistance
213(1)
4.22 Performance-graded asphalt binder tests
213(8)
4.22.1 Flash and fire test points by Cleveland open cup
213(1)
4.22.2 Rotational viscometer for viscosity determination
213(1)
4.22.3 DSR test
213(1)
4.22.4 Rolling thin film oven test
213(1)
4.22.5 Accelerated ageing by PAV
213(2)
4.22.6 Bending beam rheometer test for flexural creep stiffness
215(1)
4.22.7 Direct tension test for fracture properties
215(1)
References
215(6)
5 Hot asphalts
221(76)
5.2 General
221(1)
5.2 Determination and role of asphalts
221(1)
5.3 Characteristic types of asphalts
222(2)
5.4 Asphalt concrete
224(28)
5.4.1 AC in accordance to European standards
224(1)
5.4.1.1 Constituent material requirements
224(1)
5.4.1.2 Requirements for the target composition of AC
225(1)
5.4.1.3 General requirements
225(4)
5.4.1.4 Empirical requirements
229(3)
5.4.1.5 Fundamental requirements
232(1)
5.4.1.6 Tolerances and test frequencies for conformity assessment
233(1)
5.4.2 AC in accordance to American standards
233(2)
5.4.2.1 Superpave mix design
235(3)
5.4.2.2 Marshall mix design
238(4)
5.4.2.3 Modified Marshall mix design for mixtures with maximum nominal aggregate size >25 mm
242(1)
5.4.2.4 Tolerances from target mix
242(1)
5.4.2.5 Volumetric properties of compacted bituminous mixture
242(5)
5.4.2.6 Test method for determination of the theoretical maximum specific gravity and density
247(1)
5.4.2.7 Test method for determination of bulk specific gravity and density of compacted bituminous mixture
247(1)
5.4.2.8 Bitumen film thickness
248(1)
5.4.3 AC for airport pavements
249(2)
5.4.4 Comments on European and American composition methods of AC
251(1)
5.4.5 Open-graded AC
252(1)
5.5 AC for very thin layers
252(5)
5.5.1 BBTM in accordance to European standards
253(1)
5.5.2 Constituent materials
253(1)
5.5.2.1 Binder
253(1)
5.5.2.2 Aggregates
253(1)
5.5.2.3 Additives
254(1)
5.5.3 Mixture composition
254(1)
5.5.3.1 Grading
254(1)
5.5.3.2 Binder content
255(1)
5.5.3.3 Additives
255(1)
5.5.4 Mixture properties
255(1)
5.5.4.1 Void content
255(1)
5.5.4.2 Water sensitivity
256(1)
5.5.4.3 Mechanical stability
256(1)
5.5.4.4 Resistance to fuel and de-icing fluid for application on airfields
256(1)
5.5.4.5 Resistance to abrasion by studded tyres
256(1)
5.5.5 Other requirements
257(1)
5.5.5.1 Temperature of the mixture
257(1)
5.5.5.2 Coating and homogeneity
257(1)
5.5.6 Tolerance and test frequencies for conformity assessment
257(1)
5.6 Porous asphalt
257(11)
5.6.1 PA in accordance to European standards
258(1)
5.6.1.1 Constituent materials
258(1)
5.6.1.2 Mixture composition
259(1)
5.6.1.3 Mixture properties
260(2)
5.6.1.4 Complementary tests for application on airfields
262(1)
5.6.1.5 Other requirements
262(1)
5.6.1.6 Basic requirements of PA to avoid over-specification
263(1)
5.6.1.7 Tolerances, test frequencies for finished asphalt and conformity assessment
263(1)
5.6.2 PA in accordance to American standards
263(1)
5.6.2.1 Constituent materials
263(1)
5.6.2.2 Grading
264(1)
5.6.2.3 Mix design of OGFC
265(2)
5.6.2.4 Production and placement
267(1)
5.6.3 PA in accordance to FAA
267(1)
5.7 Hot rolled asphalt
268(5)
5.7.1 HRA in accordance to European standards
269(1)
5.7.2 Constituent materials
269(1)
5.7.3 Mixture composition
269(1)
5.7.3.1 General
269(1)
5.7.3.2 Grading
269(1)
5.7.3.3 Binder content
270(1)
5.7.3.4 Binder volume
270(1)
5.7.3.5 Additives
270(1)
5.7.4 Mixture properties
270(1)
5.7.4.1 Void content
271(1)
5.7.4.2 Water sensitivity
271(1)
5.7.4.3 Resistance to permanent deformation
271(1)
5.7.4.4 Stiffness
271(1)
5.7.4.5 Resistance to fuel and resistance to de-icing fluid for application on airfields
271(1)
5.7.5 Other requirements
272(1)
5.7.5.1 Temperature of the mixture
272(1)
5.7.5.2 Coating and homogeneity
272(1)
5.7.6 Tolerances, test frequencies for finished asphalt and conformity assessment
272(1)
5.8 Stone mastic asphalt
273(5)
5.8.1 SMA in accordance to European standards
273(1)
5.8.1.1 Constituent materials
273(1)
5.8.1.2 Mixture composition
273(1)
5.8.1.3 Mixture properties
274(2)
5.8.1.4 Other requirements
276(1)
5.8.1.5 Tolerances, test frequencies for finished asphalt and conformity assessment
276(1)
5.8.2 SMA in accordance to American standards
277(1)
5.8.2.1 Constituent materials
277(1)
5.8.2.2 Grading
277(1)
5.8.2.3 Target composition of the bituminous mixture
277(1)
5.9 Mastic asphalt
278(3)
5.9.1 MA in accordance to European standards
278(1)
5.9.1.1 Constituent materials
278(1)
5.9.1.2 Mixture composition
279(1)
5.9.1.3 Mixture properties
280(1)
5.9.1.4 Other requirements
280(1)
5.9.1.5 Tolerances and conformity assessment
281(1)
5.9.2 MA in accordance to American standards
281(1)
5.10 Soft asphalt
281(1)
5.11 High-modulus asphalts
281(3)
5.12 Warm mix asphalts
284(5)
5.12.1 WMA technologies
285(1)
5.12.2 Performance of WMA and HWMA
286(1)
5.12.3 Specifications of WMA
287(1)
5.12.4 Mix design practices for WMA
287(1)
5.12.4.1 NCHRP mix design practice for WMA -- brief description
287(2)
5.13 Other types of asphalts
289(8)
References
289(8)
6 Cold asphalts
297(36)
6.1 General
297(1)
6.2 Characteristic types of cold asphalts
297(1)
6.3 Dense-graded cold asphalts
298(6)
6.3.1 Constituent materials
298(1)
6.3.1.1 Binder
298(1)
6.3.1.2 Aggregates
298(1)
6.3.1.3 Filler
298(1)
6.3.1.4 Aggregate mixtures
299(1)
6.3.1.5 Added water
299(1)
6.3.1.6 Chemical additive
299(1)
6.3.2 Composition of DGCAs
299(1)
6.3.3 Modified Marshall method for DGCAs
300(1)
6.3.3.1 Compatibility of bituminous emulsion and determination of per cent of added water
300(1)
6.3.3.2 Determination of mixture properties for optimum performance
300(2)
6.3.3.3 Creep coefficient
302(1)
6.3.4 The ravelling test
303(1)
6.4 Open-graded cold asphalts
304(1)
6.4.1 Constituent materials
304(1)
6.4.1.1 Aggregates
304(1)
6.4.1.2 Bituminous emulsion
305(1)
6.4.1.3 Added water
305(1)
6.4.1.4 Other additives
305(1)
6.4.2 Composition of OGCAs
305(1)
6.5 Production of cold asphalt mixtures
305(3)
6.5.1 Production in a central plant
306(1)
6.5.2 Production in-place
306(1)
6.5.2.1 Travel plant mixing
306(1)
6.5.2.2 Blade mixing
307(1)
6.5.2.3 Rotary/reclaimer mixing
308(1)
6.6 Laying and compaction of cold asphalt mixtures
308(1)
6.6.1 Laying
308(1)
6.6.2 Compaction
308(1)
6.7 Quality control of cold asphalt mixtures
309(1)
6.8 Cold asphalts for slurry surfacing
309(24)
6.8.1 Constituent materials
310(1)
6.8.1.1 Bituminous emulsion
310(1)
6.8.1.2 Aggregates
310(1)
6.8.1.3 Additives
311(1)
6.8.2 Aggregate gradation
311(1)
6.8.3 Mix design for slurry surfacing
311(1)
6.8.3.1 Mix design procedure for slurry seal
312(1)
6.8.3.2 Mix design procedure for micro-surfacing
313(2)
6.8.3.3 Tests on slurry surfacing mix according to ENs
315(1)
6.8.3.4 Mix design for slurry surfacing on airfields
316(1)
6.8.4 Technical requirements of slurry surfacing based on visual assessment and surface characteristics
316(1)
6.8.5 Mixing and laying of slurry surfacing
317(2)
6.8.6 Quality control during laying slurry surfacing
319(1)
6.8.7 Evaluation of conformity factory production control of slurry surfacing
320(1)
References
321(2)
Annex
6. A
323(2)
Annex 6.B
325(5)
Annex 6.C
330(3)
7 Fundamental mechanical properties of asphalts and laboratory tests
333(66)
7.1 General
333(1)
7.2 Stiffness modulus of asphalts
333(2)
7.3 Types of loading
335(2)
7.4 Determination of stiffness modulus and other moduli
337(15)
7.4.1 Indirect tensile test on cylindrical specimens (IT-CY)
338(1)
7.4.1.1 Indicative stiffness modulus results
339(1)
7.4.2 Cyclic indirect tension test on cylindrical specimens (CIT-CY)
339(2)
7.4.3 Two-point bending test on trapezoidal (2PB-TR) or prismatic (2PB-PR) specimens
341(2)
7.4.3.1 Limiting values
343(1)
7.4.4 Three- or four-point bending test on prismatic specimens (3PB-PR or 4PB-PR)
343(1)
7.4.5 Direct tension-compression test on cylindrical specimens (DTC-CY)
344(1)
7.4.6 Direct tension test on cylindrical or prismatic specimens (DT-CY)
345(1)
7.4.6.1 Master curve
346(1)
7.4.6.2 Stiffness modulus
346(1)
7.4.7 Dynamic modulus test
346(3)
7.4.8 Resilient modulus test by indirect tension
349(1)
7.4.9 Complex shear modulus and permanent shear strain test
350(2)
7.4.10 Complex shear modulus test using a DSR
352(1)
7.5 Prediction of asphalt stiffness
352(4)
7.5.1 Other prediction models of asphalt stiffness
354(2)
7.6 Permanent deformation of asphalts
356(21)
7.6.1 Behaviour of bituminous mixture under creep (static) and cyclic compressive loading
357(1)
7.6.2 Cyclic compression tests
358(1)
7.6.2.1 Uniaxial cyclic compression test with confinement -- method A
359(2)
7.6.2.2 Triaxal cyclic compression test -- method B
361(3)
7.6.2.3 Flow number test using the AMPT
364(1)
7.6.2.4 Indirect tensile strength at high temperatures
365(1)
7.6.3 Static creep test
365(1)
7.6.4 Permanent shear strain and complex shear modulus test using the SST
366(1)
7.6.5 Wheel-tracking tests by European norms
367(1)
7.6.5.1 Testing with the use of a large-size device, in air
368(1)
7.6.5.2 Testing with the use of an extra-large-size device, in air
369(1)
7.6.5.3 Testing with the use of a small-size device, procedures A and B, in air
369(2)
7.6.5.4 Testing with the use of a small-size device, procedure B, in water
371(1)
7.6.5.5 Wheel-tracking test by a small device, BS 598-110 (1996), in air
372(1)
7.6.6 Evaluation of asphalts based on rut resistance employing European wheel-tracking test procedures
372(2)
7.6.7 Wheel-tracking tests by American standards
374(1)
7.6.7.1 Wheel-tracking test with the use of the APA device
375(1)
7.6.7.2 Wheel-tracking test with the use of the Hamburg device
375(1)
7.6.8 Evaluation of bituminous mixtures on rut resistance employing US testing procedures
376(1)
7.7 Fatigue of asphalts
377(13)
7.7.1 Determination of fatigue characteristics from laboratory testing
378(3)
7.7.2 Resistance to fatigue tests
381(1)
7.7.2.1 Failure criteria
381(1)
7.7.2.2 Age of the specimens
382(1)
7.7.2.3 Indirect tensile test on cylindrical-shaped specimens
382(2)
7.7.2.4 Two-point bending test on trapezoidal-shaped specimens
384(1)
7.7.2.5 Two-point bending test on prismatic-shaped specimens
385(1)
7.7.2.6 Three-point bending test on prismatic-shaped specimens
386(1)
7.7.2.7 Four-point bending test on prismatic-shaped specimens
386(1)
7.7.2.8 Repeated flexural bending test according to ASTM D 7460 (2010)
387(1)
7.7.3 Prediction of fatigue performance
388(2)
7.8 Thermal cracking of asphalts
390(9)
7.8.1 Creep compliance and strength of hot mix asphalts using the indirect tensile test device
390(3)
7.8.2 Determination of fracture energy of asphalt-aggregate mixtures using the disk-shaped compact tension geometry
393(1)
References
393(6)
8 Production, transportation, laying and compaction of hot mix asphalts
399(28)
8.1 General
399(1)
8.2 Types of asphalt production plants
399(1)
8.3 Batch plants
400(4)
8.3.1 Conventional batch plant
400(1)
8.3.1.1 Basic components of a batch plant unit
401(3)
8.3.2 Batch heater plants
404(1)
8.4 Drum-mix plants
404(5)
8.4.1 Parallel-flow drum-mix plants
404(2)
8.4.2 Counterflow drum-mix plant
406(1)
8.4.3 Newer continuous processing mixers/plants
407(2)
8.5 Transportation of hot mix asphalts
409(1)
8.6 Laying/paving
409(7)
8.6.1 Tractor unit
411(1)
8.6.1.1 Hopper
411(1)
8.6.1.2 Push rollers
412(1)
8.6.1.3 Conveyor
412(1)
8.6.1.4 Flow control gates
412(1)
8.6.1.5 Side arms
412(1)
8.6.1.6 Augers
412(1)
8.6.1.7 Automations and automatic level and slope control device
412(1)
8.6.2 The screed
413(1)
8.6.2.1 Screed components
414(1)
8.6.2.2 Type of screeds
415(1)
8.6.3 Critical points during paving
415(1)
8.7 Compaction of asphalts
416(11)
8.7.1 Factors affecting compaction
417(1)
8.7.1.1 Aggregate material
417(1)
8.7.1.2 Bitumen grade and compaction temperature
418(1)
8.7.1.3 Environmental conditions
419(1)
8.7.1.4 Layer thickness
419(1)
8.7.1.5 Compaction equipment
419(3)
8.7.1.6 Rolling procedure
422(2)
References
424(3)
Annex 8.A
425(2)
9 Quality control of production and acceptance of asphalts
427(26)
9.1 General
427(1)
9.2 Sampling
427(1)
9.3 Methods of material sampling
428(3)
9.3.1 Methods of sampling aggregate materials
428(1)
9.3.1.1 Sampling from a stockpile
428(1)
9.3.1.2 Sampling from a conveyor belt
428(1)
9.3.1.3 Sampling from hot bins
429(1)
9.3.2 Methods of sampling bituminous binders
429(1)
9.3.3 Methods of sampling hot mix asphalt
429(1)
9.3.3.1 Sampling from a lorry load
429(1)
9.3.3.2 Sampling from the augers of the paver
429(1)
9.3.3.3 Sampling of workable material in heaps
430(1)
9.3.3.4 Sampling from laid but not rolled material
430(1)
9.3.3.5 Sampling from laid and compacted material by coring
430(1)
9.3.3.6 Sampling from laid and compacted material by sawing out slabs
430(1)
9.3.3.7 Sampling from the slat conveyor of a continuous process plant
431(1)
9.3.3.8 Sampling coated chipping from stockpiles
431(1)
9.4 Inspection and testing of incoming constituent materials and delivered product
431(2)
9.4.1 Inspection and testing of incoming constituent materials
431(1)
9.4.2 Inspection and testing of finished bituminous mixture
431(2)
9.5 Acceptance of delivered and laid asphalt
433(4)
9.5.1 Binder content
434(1)
9.5.2 Aggregate gradation
434(1)
9.5.3 Volumetric properties of the asphalt
435(1)
9.5.4 Asphalt temperature
435(1)
9.5.5 Compaction achieved
435(1)
9.5.6 Layer thickness
436(1)
9.5.7 Surface irregularities and evenness (roughness)
436(1)
9.6 Methods for determination of binder content
437(16)
9.6.1 Binder extraction methods
437(2)
9.6.1.1 Cold extraction using a centrifuge extractor method
439(3)
9.6.1.2 Hot extraction paper filter method
442(1)
9.6.1.3 Hot extraction wire mesh filter method
443(1)
9.6.1.4 Hot extraction soxhlet extractor method
443(1)
9.6.1.5 Cold extraction bottle rotation machine method/rotary bottle extraction method
444(1)
9.6.1.6 Cold extraction by agitation
444(1)
9.6.2 Total binder recovery methods
445(2)
9.6.3 Determination of residual mineral matter in the binder extract by incineration
447(1)
9.6.4 Guidance on determination of soluble binder content of asphalts with polymer-modified binders
447(1)
9.6.5 Quantitative extraction and recovery of the binder method
448(1)
9.6.6 Binder recovery by the ignition method
449(1)
9.6.7 Binder content determination by the nuclear method
450(1)
References
450(3)
10 Layers of flexible pavement
453(38)
10.1 General
453(1)
10.2 Subgrade
454(4)
10.2.1 Bearing capacity of subgrade and influencing factors
455(2)
10.2.2 Estimation of subgrade CBR
457(1)
10.3 Capping layer
458(5)
10.3.1 Materials for capping layer
458(2)
10.3.2 Soil stabilisation
460(1)
10.3.3 Compaction of capping layer
460(1)
10.3.4 Use of geotextiles and geotextile-related products
461(2)
10.4 Sub-base course
463(1)
10.4.1 Sub-base course material
464(1)
10.5 Base course
464(18)
10.5.1 Materials for base and sub-base courses
464(1)
10.5.2 Requirements of unbound aggregate mixtures according to European specifications
465(2)
10.5.2.1 Factory production quality control
467(1)
10.5.3 Requirements of aggregates for unbound mixtures according to American standards
467(2)
10.5.4 Determination of water content for optimal density and wetting/laying procedures of unbound material
469(1)
10.5.5 Compaction of unbound base and sub-base layers
470(2)
10.5.6 Strength and stiffness of unbound materials and unbound layers
472(1)
10.5.7 Hydraulically bound materials for bases and sub-bases
473(1)
10.5.8 European practice for HBMs
474(1)
10.5.8.1 Hydraulic binders or binder constituents
474(1)
10.5.8.2 Aggregate requirements for HBMs
475(1)
10.5.8.3 Requirements of treated soil by hydraulic binders
476(1)
10.5.8.4 Laboratory mixture design procedure
477(1)
10.5.8.5 General requirements for mixing and layer construction of HBM
478(1)
10.5.8.6 Testing and quality control of HBM
478(1)
10.5.9 American practice for HBMs
479(1)
10.5.9.1 Aggregate and CSM requirements
479(1)
10.5.9.2 Laboratory mixture design procedure
480(1)
10.5.9.3 General requirements for mixing and layer construction of CSM
480(1)
10.5.9.4 Testing and quality control of CSM
481(1)
10.5.9.5 Elastic modulus, resilient modulus and flexural strength for design purpose
481(1)
10.6 Asphalt layers
482(2)
10.6.1 Asphalt base
482(1)
10.6.2 Binder course
483(1)
10.6.3 Surface layer
483(1)
10.6.3.1 Types of asphalts for asphalt base, binder course and surface layers
483(1)
10.7 Poisson's ratio of paving and subgrade materials
484(7)
References
485(6)
11 Methods determining stresses and deflections
491(20)
11.1 General
491(1)
11.2 One-Layer System -- Boussinesq Theory
491(4)
11.2.1 Foster--Ahlvin diagrams
492(2)
11.2.2 Elastic deflection
494(1)
11.3 Two-Layer System -- Burmister Theory
495(6)
11.3.1 Determination of surface deflection
499(1)
11.3.2 Odemark's equivalent thickness concept
500(1)
11.3.2.1 Surface deformation using Odemark's equivalent thickness concept
501(1)
11.4 Three or more layer system
501(4)
11.4.1 Determination of stresses/strains from tables or nomographs
502(1)
11.4.1.1 Determination of stresses and deflection using Iwanow's nomographs
502(3)
11.5 Determination of stresses, strains and displacements in a multi-layer system by computer programs
505(6)
11.5.1 CHEVRON software
505(1)
11.5.2 BISAR software
505(2)
11.5.3 ELSYM5, KENLAYER and WESLEA software
507(1)
11.5.4 DAM A software
507(1)
11.5.5 Other software
507(1)
References
508(3)
12 Traffic and traffic assessment
511(20)
12.1 General
511(1)
12.2 Axle loads
511(2)
12.3 Vehicle classification
513(2)
12.4 Overloaded vehicles
515(1)
12.5 Measurement of vehicle axle load
516(5)
12.5.1 WIM systems
516(2)
12.5.2 Components of the WIM system
518(1)
12.5.2.1 Weight (mass) sensor
518(1)
12.5.2.2 Vehicle classification sensor or identification sensor
518(1)
12.5.2.3 Data storage and processing unit
519(1)
12.5.2.4 User communication unit
519(1)
12.5.3 Factors affecting performance of the WIM system
519(1)
12.5.3.1 Location and road geometry at weigh station
519(1)
12.5.3.2 Pavement characteristics
520(1)
12.5.3.3 Environmental characteristics
520(1)
12.5.4 Calibration of the WIM system
520(1)
12.5.5 Available WIM systems
520(1)
12.6 Contact area and pressure
521(1)
12.7 The concept of equivalent standard axle loading - equivalency factors for flexible pavements
522(4)
12.7.1 Determination of the cumulative number of ESAL
525(1)
12.8 Equivalency factors for rigid pavements
526(5)
References
527(4)
13 Flexible pavement design methodologies
531(56)
13.1 General
531(1)
13.2 Design criteria for flexible pavements
532(3)
13.3 Asphalt institute pavement design methodology
535(9)
13.3.1 Determination of cumulative ESAL
535(1)
13.3.2 Selection of subgrade resilient modulus
536(1)
13.3.3 Selection of layer materials
537(1)
13.3.3.1 Unbound aggregate for base and sub-base
537(1)
13.3.3.2 Asphalts for surface and base mixtures
538(1)
13.3.4 Selection of bitumen grade
538(1)
13.3.5 Thickness determination (procedure)
538(1)
13.3.5.1 Thickness determination for unbound flexible pavement
538(2)
13.3.5.2 Thickness determination for full-depth pavement
540(1)
13.3.5.3 Thickness determination for pavement with cold asphalt
540(3)
13.3.6 Planned stage construction
543(1)
13.3.6.1 Design method
543(1)
13.3.7 Economic analysis
544(1)
13.4 AASHTO pavement design methodology
544(9)
13.4.1 General
544(2)
13.4.2 Design variables
546(1)
13.4.2.1 Traffic volume
546(1)
13.4.2.2 Design life
546(1)
13.4.2.3 Reliability
546(1)
13.4.2.4 Environmental factors
547(1)
13.4.3 Pavement performance criteria
548(1)
13.4.4 Material and layer properties
548(1)
13.4.4.1 Subgrade material -- effective resilient modulus
548(1)
13.4.4.2 Pavement layer materials -- layer moduli
549(1)
13.4.4.3 Structural layer coefficients
549(1)
13.4.5 Pavement structural characteristics
550(1)
13.4.6 Determination of structural number
551(1)
13.4.7 Determination of pavement thickness
551(1)
13.4.7.1 Selection of layer thickness
551(1)
13.4.7.2 Layered design analysis
552(1)
13.4.8 Swelling or frost heave
553(1)
13.4.9 Costing and economic analysis
553(1)
13.5 UK flexible pavement design methodology
553(13)
13.5.1 Determination of design traffic
555(2)
13.5.2 Subgrade design CBR and surface stiffness modulus
557(1)
13.5.3 Foundation classes
557(1)
13.5.3.1 Definitions to expressions used in Figure 13.14 and in the methodology
558(1)
13.5.4 Foundation design
559(1)
13.5.4.1 Determination of foundation thickness for restricted design
560(1)
13.5.4.2 Determination of foundation thickness for performance design
560(3)
13.5.5 Cases where subgrade CBR is low (CBR < 2.5%)
563(1)
13.5.6 Flexible pavement design
563(1)
13.5.7 Selection of pavement material
564(1)
13.5.7.1 Asphalt base and binder course material
564(1)
13.5.7.2 HBMs for base layer
564(1)
13.5.7.3 Surface course material
564(1)
13.5.8 Determination of flexible pavement with asphalt base
565(1)
13.5.9 Determination of flexible pavement with HBM base
566(1)
13.5.10 Frost protection
566(1)
13.6 AUTh flexible pavement design methodology
566(7)
13.6.1 General
566(1)
13.6.2 Determination of design traffic ESAL
567(1)
13.6.3 Determination of design subgrade CBR
567(1)
13.6.4 Determination of MAAT
567(2)
13.6.5 Thickness determination of capping layer
569(1)
13.6.6 Thickness determination of base/sub-base
569(1)
13.6.7 Thickness determination of bituminous layers
570(2)
13.6.8 Selection of surfacing material
572(1)
13.6.9 Planned stage construction and economic analysis
573(1)
13.6.10 Economic analysis
573(1)
13.7 Shell flexible pavement design methodology
573(1)
13.8 French flexible pavement design methodology
574(1)
13.9 Australian flexible pavement design methodology
575(2)
13.10 The Nottingham University/mobil design method
577(1)
13.11 Other pavement design methods
577(1)
13.12 AASHTO mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide
578(9)
13.12.1 General
578(2)
13.12.2 MEPDG for flexible pavements
580(2)
References
582(5)
14 Rigid pavements and design methodologies
587(46)
14.1 General
587(2)
14.2 Subgrade and layers of rigid pavements
589(4)
14.2.1 Subgrade
589(1)
14.2.1.1 Swelling/shrinkage of subgrade
589(1)
14.2.1.2 Frost protection of subgrade
589(1)
14.2.1.3 Drainage of the subgrade
589(1)
14.2.2 Sub-base
590(1)
14.2.3 Concrete layer and constituents of concrete
590(1)
14.2.4 Constituents of concrete
590(1)
14.2.4.1 Aggregates
591(1)
14.2.4.2 Cement
591(1)
14.2.4.3 Water and admixtures
591(1)
14.2.5 Concrete and concrete strength
592(1)
14.2.6 Elastic modulus and strength
593(1)
14.3 Consideration of stresses that developed on a concrete slab
593(3)
14.3.1 Stresses attributed to traffic loads
594(1)
14.3.2 Thermal stresses
595(1)
14.3.2.1 Contraction stresses
595(1)
14.3.2.2 Expansion stresses
595(1)
14.3.2.3 Warping stresses
595(1)
14.3.3 Temperature-friction stresses
596(1)
14.3.4 Stresses attributed to moisture change
596(1)
14.4 Cracking of fresh and hardened concrete
596(9)
14.4.1 Cracks in fresh concrete
597(1)
14.4.1.1 Plastic settlement cracking
597(1)
14.4.1.2 Plastic shrinkage cracking
597(1)
14.4.2 Cracks in hardened concrete
598(1)
14.4.2.1 Crazing cracking
598(1)
14.4.2.2 Early thermal contraction cracking
599(1)
14.4.2.3 Drying shrinkage cracking
599(2)
14.4.2.4 Chemical reaction cracking
601(1)
14.4.2.5 Poor construction practice cracking
601(1)
14.4.2.6 Cracking attributed to errors in design and detailing
602(1)
14.4.2.7 Cracking attributed to externally applied loads
602(1)
14.4.2.8 Weathering cracking or defrost cracking
602(1)
14.4.2.9 Cracking attributed to corrosion of reinforcement
602(1)
14.4.2.10 Cracking attributed to overloads
602(1)
14.4.3 The effect of surface cracking and its repair
603(1)
14.4.4 The role of joints
603(1)
14.4.5 Hot weather concreting
604(1)
14.5 Joints in concrete pavements
605(6)
14.5.1 Contraction joints
607(1)
14.5.2 Expansion joints
608(1)
14.5.2.1 Sealants and joint fillers
609(1)
14.5.3 Warping joints
609(2)
14.5.4 Joints attributed to interruption of works
611(1)
14.6 The function of steel reinforcement
611(1)
14.6.1 Amount and position of reinforcement
611(1)
14.6.1.1 Jointed reinforced concrete pavements
611(1)
14.6.1.2 Continuously reinforced concrete pavements
612(1)
14.7 Pre-stressed concrete
612(1)
14.8 Fibre-reinforced concrete
613(1)
14.9 Rigid pavement design methodologies
613(1)
14.10 UK rigid pavement design methodology
614(4)
14.10.1 Design parameters
614(1)
14.10.1.1 Design traffic
614(1)
14.10.1.2 Subgrade and foundation layers
615(1)
14.10.1.3 Moisture and frost
615(1)
14.10.2 Thickness determination of slab with continuous reinforcement
615(1)
14.10.2.1 Thickness and type of asphalt overlay
616(1)
14.10.2.2 Steel reinforcement
616(1)
14.10.3 Thickness determination of unreinforced and jointed reinforced concrete slab
616(1)
14.10.3.1 Maximum transverse joint spacings for URC pavements
617(1)
14.10.3.2 Maximum transverse joint spacings for JRC pavements
617(1)
14.10.4 Concrete surfacing and materials
617(1)
14.11 AASHTO rigid pavement design methodology
618(4)
14.11.1 Thickness determination of slab (all cases)
618(3)
14.11.2 Determination of reinforcement in jointed reinforced slabs
621(1)
14.11.3 Determination of tie bar spacing
621(1)
14.11.4 Determination of dowel bars
621(1)
14.11.5 Joint spacing
621(1)
14.11.6 Determination of reinforcement in CRCPs
622(1)
14.11.7 Pre-stressed concrete pavement
622(1)
14.12 Australian rigid pavement design methodology
622(3)
14.12.1 Determination of concrete slab thickness
624(1)
14.12.2 Determination of reinforcement
624(1)
14.12.3 Dowel and tie bars
625(1)
14.12.4 Concrete surface finishes
625(1)
14.13 MEPDG for rigid pavements
625(2)
14.14 Construction of rigid pavements
627(6)
References
628(5)
15 Pavement maintenance rehabilitation and strengthening
633(76)
15.1 General
633(1)
15.2 Terminology
633(1)
15.3 Maintenance, rehabilitation and pavement life
634(1)
15.4 Typical surface distresses in flexible pavements
635(1)
15.5 Cracking in flexible pavements
636(9)
15.5.1 Crack sealing/filling -- general
636(1)
15.5.2 Alligator (fatigue) cracking
637(1)
15.5.2.1 Causes
637(1)
15.5.2.2 Treatment
638(1)
15.5.3 Edge cracks
639(1)
15.5.3.1 Causes
639(1)
15.5.3.2 Treatment
639(1)
15.5.4 Paving joint and widening cracking
639(1)
15.5.4.1 Causes
640(1)
15.5.4.2 Treatment
640(1)
15.5.5 Reflective cracks
640(1)
15.5.5.1 Causes
641(1)
15.5.5.2 Treatment
641(1)
15.5.6 Slippage cracking
642(1)
15.5.6.1 Causes
642(1)
15.5.6.2 Treatment
642(1)
15.5.7 Shrinkage cracking
642(1)
15.5.7.1 Causes
642(2)
15.5.7.2 Treatment
644(1)
15.5.8 Linear wheel path cracks
644(1)
15.5.8.1 Causes
644(1)
15.5.8.2 Treatment
644(1)
15.5.9 Helical or diagonal cracks
644(1)
15.5.9.1 Causes
644(1)
15.5.9.2 Treatment
644(1)
15.6 Retardation of reflective cracking treatments and asphalt reinforcement techniques
645(3)
15.6.1 Geosynthetics for asphalts
645(2)
15.6.2 Stress-absorbing membrane
647(1)
15.6.3 Fibre-reinforced membrane
648(1)
15.7 Surface distortions in flexible pavements
648(5)
15.7.1 Rutting
648(1)
15.7.1.1 Causes
648(2)
15.7.1.2 Treatment
650(1)
15.7.2 Corrugations and shoving
651(1)
15.7.2.1 Causes
652(1)
15.7.2.2 Treatment
652(1)
15.7.3 Local depressions
652(1)
15.7.3.1 Causes
652(1)
15.7.3.2 Treatment
652(1)
15.7.4 Upheaval
652(1)
15.7.4.1 Causes
652(1)
15.7.4.2 Treatment
653(1)
15.7.5 Utility cut depressions
653(1)
15.7.5.1 Causes
653(1)
15.7.5.2 Treatment
653(1)
15.8 Disintegration of flexible pavements
653(1)
15.8.1 Ravelling
653(1)
15.8.1.1 Causes
653(1)
15.8.1.2 Treatment
653(1)
15.8.2 Potholes
654(1)
15.8.2.1 Causes
654(1)
15.8.2.2 Treatment
654(1)
15.9 Loss of surface skid resistance
654(2)
15.9.1 Polished aggregates
655(1)
15.9.1.1 Causes
655(1)
15.9.1.2 Treatment
655(1)
15.9.2 Bleeding or flushing
655(1)
15.9.2.1 Causes
655(1)
15.9.2.2 Treatment
656(1)
15.10 Typical distresses in rigid pavements
656(1)
15.11 Cracking of rigid pavements
656(5)
15.11.1 Linear cracking
656(1)
15.11.1.1 Causes
656(1)
15.11.1.2 Treatment
657(1)
15.11.2 Corner cracking
657(1)
15.11.2.1 Causes
657(1)
15.11.2.2 Treatment
657(1)
15.11.3 Joint cracking and extrusion of joint seal
657(1)
15.11.3.1 Causes
658(1)
15.11.3.2 Treatment
658(1)
15.11.4 D-cracking
658(1)
15.11.4.1 Causes
658(1)
15.11.4.2 Treatment
658(1)
15.11.5 Multiple cracking
658(1)
15.11.5.1 Causes
658(1)
15.11.5.2 Treatment
659(1)
15.11.6 Cracking of fresh and hardened concrete
659(1)
15.11.6.1 Causes
660(1)
15.11.6.2 Treatment
661(1)
15.11.7 Cracking of hardened concrete caused by other factors
661(1)
15.11.7.1 Causes
661(1)
15.11.7.2 Treatment
661(1)
15.12 Surface deformation in rigid pavements
661(1)
15.12.1 Causes
661(1)
15.12.2 Treatment
661(1)
15.13 Disintegration of rigid pavements
662(1)
15.13.1 Scaling
662(1)
15.13.1.1 Causes
662(1)
15.13.1.2 Treatment
662(1)
15.13.2 Spalling
662(1)
15.13.2.1 Causes
663(1)
15.13.2.2 Treatment
663(1)
15.14 Loss of surface skid resistance
663(1)
15.14.1 Cause
663(1)
15.14.2 Treatment
663(1)
15.15 Surface dressing
664(24)
15.15.1 Types of surface dressing
665(1)
15.15.1.1 Single surface dressing
666(1)
15.15.1.2 Racked-in surface dressing
666(1)
15.15.1.3 Double dressing
666(1)
15.15.1.4 Inverted double dressing
666(1)
15.15.1.5 Sandwich surface dressing
667(1)
15.15.2 UK surface dressing design methodology (RN 39)
667(1)
15.15.2.1 Surface temperature category
667(1)
15.15.2.2 Road hardness
667(1)
15.15.2.3 Traffic category and traffic speed
668(1)
15.15.2.4 Highway layout
669(1)
15.15.2.5 Aggregate properties
669(1)
15.15.2.6 Selection of type of surface dressing
669(1)
15.15.2.7 Type and quantity of bituminous binder
669(4)
15.15.2.8 Quantity of chippings for surface dressing
673(1)
15.15.3 Austroads surface dressing design methodology
673(1)
15.15.3.1 Single surface dressing (single seal)
674(5)
15.15.3.2 Double surface dressing (double seal)
679(4)
15.15.4 AASHTO chip seal design
683(1)
15.15.5 Asphalt institute surface dressing (chip seal) design
683(1)
15.15.6 Equipment and construction sequence of surface dressing
684(1)
15.15.7 Adhesivity tests and quality control tests for surface dressing
685(1)
15.15.8 Type of failures of surface dressing
686(1)
15.15.8.1 Loss of cover aggregates
687(1)
15.15.8.2 Streaking
687(1)
15.15.8.3 Bleeding
687(1)
15.15.8.4 Fatting
687(1)
15.15.8.5 Other failures
687(1)
15.16 Pavement strengthening
688(1)
15.17 Asphalt overlay design methods over flexible pavements
688(6)
15.17.1 Asphalt institute deflection method
688(2)
15.17.2 UK highways agency deflection method
690(1)
15.17.3 Asphalt institute effective depth method
691(3)
15.18 Asphalt overlay over rigid pavement
694(6)
15.18.1 Asphalt institute effective thickness method for asphalt overlay over rigid pavement
697(1)
15.18.2 Asphalt institute deflection procedure for asphalt overlay over rigid pavements
698(1)
15.18.3 British practice regarding overlays on rigid pavements
699(1)
15.19 Concrete overlay over rigid or flexible pavement
700(1)
15.20 AASHTO overlay design method
701(8)
15.20.1 According to the AASHTO guide of pavement structures
701(1)
15.20.2 According to the AASHTO mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide
702(4)
References
706(3)
16 Pavement evaluation and measurement of functional and structural Characteristics
709(76)
16.1 Pavement evaluation
709(1)
16.2 Functional evaluation by visual condition survey
709(4)
16.2.1 Present serviceability ratio and present serviceability index concept
711(1)
16.2.2 Structural adequacy evaluation by visual distress survey by MEPDG
712(1)
16.3 Functional evaluation by devices measuring surface characteristics
713(43)
16.3.1 Pavement surface characteristics
713(2)
16.3.2 Surface skid resistance
715(3)
16.3.3 Measurement of surface skid resistance
718(1)
16.3.4 Mobile devices measuring skid resistance
719(2)
16.3.4.1 SCRIM
721(1)
16.3.4.2 Grip Tester
722(1)
16.3.4.3 BV-11 skiddometer and Saab friction tester
723(1)
16.3.4.4 RoadSTAR
724(1)
16.3.4.5 SRM
725(1)
16.3.4.6 Mu-meter
725(1)
16.3.4.7 ASTM locked wheel skid tester
726(1)
16.3.4.8 Continuous reading, fixed slip skid testers
727(1)
16.3.5 Portable devices measuring skid resistance
728(1)
16.3.5.1 British pendulum
728(1)
16.3.5.2 Other portable devices
729(1)
16.3.6 Skid resistance index
730(1)
16.3.7 International friction index
731(1)
16.3.8 Limit skid resistance values
731(2)
16.3.9 Surface texture
733(1)
16.3.9.1 Measurement of texture depth by volumetric technique
733(1)
16.3.9.2 Measurement of texture profile using laser sensors
734(2)
16.3.10 Unevenness and mega-texture of pavement surface
736(1)
16.3.11 Surface irregularities measured by static device
736(1)
16.3.12 Profile-measuring devices
737(1)
16.3.12.1 True profile-measuring devices
738(2)
16.3.12.2 Moving reference datum level devices -- rolling devices
740(1)
16.3.12.3 Relative displacement or response-type devices
741(3)
16.3.12.4 Dynamic inertial profilometers
744(4)
16.3.13 3D laser imaging profilers
748(1)
16.3.14 Highways agency road research information system (HARRIS-2)
749(2)
16.3.15 Roughness indices
751(1)
16.3.15.1 International roughness index
752(2)
16.3.15.2 Prediction of evenness in terms of IRI
754(1)
16.3.16 TRACS vehicle for pavement surface condition evaluation
754(2)
16.4 Structural evaluation of pavements
756(29)
16.4.1 Static deflection measuring devices
757(1)
16.4.1.1 Benkelman beam
757(5)
16.4.1.2 Dynaflect and road rater
762(1)
16.4.1.3 FWDs -- impulse devices
763(4)
16.4.2 Semi-static deflection measuring devices
767(1)
16.4.2.1 LaCroix deflectograph
767(2)
16.4.2.2 Curviameter
769(1)
16.4.3 Moving deflection measuring devices
770(1)
16.4.3.1 Rolling dynamic deflectometer
770(1)
16.4.3.2 Airfield rolling weight deflectometer
770(1)
16.4.3.3 Rolling wheel deflectometer
771(1)
16.4.3.4 Traffic speed deflectometer
772(1)
16.4.4 Image deflection measuring technique
773(1)
16.4.5 Other devices
773(3)
References
776(9)
17 Pavement management
785(14)
17.1 General
785(1)
17.2 Terms -- definitions
785(1)
17.3 Purpose of pavement management
786(1)
17.3.1 Financial benefits
786(1)
17.3.2 Technical benefits
787(1)
17.3.3 Organisational benefits
787(1)
17.4 Levels of pavement management analysis
787(3)
17.4.1 Pavement management at the project level
787(1)
17.4.2 Pavement management at the network level
788(1)
17.4.3 Pavement management at the strategic level
789(1)
17.5 Pavement management components
790(6)
17.5.1 Pavement inventory
791(1)
17.5.2 Pavement condition information
791(1)
17.5.3 Traffic data
792(1)
17.5.4 History of post works
792(1)
17.5.5 Database
792(1)
17.5.6 Analysis module
793(1)
17.5.6.1 Pavement performance models
793(2)
17.5.6.2 Treatment rules
795(1)
17.5.6.3 Impact rules
796(1)
17.5.6.4 Cost information
796(1)
17.5.7 Reporting module
796(1)
17.5.8 Implementation of improvement program
796(1)
17.6 Software for pavement management
796(3)
References
797(2)
18 Pavement recycling
799(26)
18.1 General
799(1)
18.2 What pavement recycling is offering
800(2)
18.2.1 Conservation of natural resources and bitumen saving
800(1)
18.2.2 Energy saving
801(1)
18.2.3 Conservation of environment
801(1)
18.2.4 Reduction of construction cost
802(1)
18.3 Pavement recycling methods
802(3)
18.4 Cold milling (planning)
805(1)
18.4.1 Milling machines
805(1)
18.5 Hot recycling
806(3)
18.5.1 Hot in situ recycling
806(1)
18.5.1.1 Reshape
806(1)
18.5.1.2 Remix
807(1)
18.5.1.3 Repave
808(1)
18.5.2 Hot recycling in a central plant
809(1)
18.6 Cold recycling
809(4)
18.6.1 In situ full-depth cold recycling
810(1)
18.6.2 In situ partial-depth cold recycling
811(1)
18.6.3 In-central plant cold recycling
812(1)
18.7 Evaluation of RA
813(3)
18.7.1 Sampling of RA
813(1)
18.7.2 Binder properties
813(2)
18.7.3 Aggregate grading and binder content
815(1)
18.7.4 Other geometrical and physical tests on reclaimed aggregates
816(1)
18.7.5 Homogeneity of RA
816(1)
18.8 Suitability of RA
816(1)
18.9 Hot recycling mix design
816(3)
18.10 Cold recycling mix design
819(1)
18.11 Pavement design using recycled asphalt
820(1)
18.12 Recycling of rigid pavements
820(5)
18.12.1 Properties of reclaimed aggregate from rigid pavements
821(1)
References
821(4)
Index 825
Dr. Athanassios Nikolaides is a professor at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece, and director of the Highway Engineering Laboratory in the Department of Civil Engineering. He has published more than 90 papers in journals and conference proceedings, presented more than 40 additional papers at various seminars, and published three books in Greek. He is a member of the editorial advisory panel of the ICE (UK) Journal of Construction Materials, and the founder and president of the International Conference on Bituminous Mixtures and Pavements and has served as a consultant to several organizations and corporations in Greece, Europe, and Indonesia.