| Preface |
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xxxv | |
| Acknowledgements |
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xxxvii | |
| Author |
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xxxix | |
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1 | (50) |
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1.1 The formation of soils |
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1 | (1) |
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2 | (2) |
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1.3 Physical properties of soils |
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4 | (3) |
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5 | (1) |
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1.3.2 Void ratio or index |
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5 | (1) |
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5 | (1) |
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1.3.4 Percentage of air voids |
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5 | (1) |
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1.3.5 Percentage of water voids |
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6 | (1) |
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1.3.6 Degree of saturation |
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6 | (1) |
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1.3.7 Density and specific gravity of soil particles |
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6 | (1) |
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1.3.8 Density and unit weight of soil in place (in situ) |
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6 | (1) |
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1.3.9 Density of saturated soil |
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7 | (1) |
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1.3.10 Other useful relationships |
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7 | (1) |
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1.3.11 Laboratory maximum density of soils |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (9) |
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1.4.1 Particle size analysis |
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7 | (1) |
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1.4.1.1 Particle size distribution by sieving |
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8 | (1) |
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1.4.1.2 Particle size distribution by sedimentation |
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8 | (1) |
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1.4.1.3 The usefulness of aggregate gradation |
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9 | (1) |
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1.4.2 Liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index |
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10 | (2) |
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1.4.3 Relationships between IP, w, and wp |
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12 | (1) |
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1.4.4 Alternative method to determine the liquid limit -- cone penetrometer |
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12 | (1) |
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1.4.5 Moisture-laboratory density relationship |
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13 | (1) |
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1.4.6 Proctor compaction test (modified) by American standards |
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13 | (2) |
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1.4.7 Proctor compaction test by European standards |
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15 | (1) |
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1.4.8 Moisture condition value test |
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15 | (1) |
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16 | (9) |
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1.5.1 AASHTO soil classification system |
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17 | (1) |
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1.5.1.1 Group index of soils |
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17 | (2) |
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1.5.2 Unified soil classification system (ASTM system) |
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19 | (1) |
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1.5.3 The European classification system |
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19 | (6) |
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1.5.4 The UK soil classification systems |
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25 | (1) |
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1.6 Soil bearing capacity tests |
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25 | (7) |
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1.6.1 CBR laboratory test |
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25 | (1) |
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1.6.1.1 CBR test procedure according to ASTM D 1883 (2007) |
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26 | (3) |
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1.6.1.2 CBR test procedure according to CEN EN 13286-47 (2012) |
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29 | (1) |
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1.6.1.3 Variations on determining the CBR value |
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29 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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1.6.3 Dynamic cone penetrometer |
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30 | (1) |
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1.6.4 Correlations between CBR and index properties of soil material |
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31 | (1) |
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1.7 Plate bearing test -- modulus of reaction (k) |
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32 | (1) |
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1.7.1 Correlation between CBR and k value |
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33 | (1) |
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1.8 Resistance R value test |
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33 | (1) |
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1.9 Elastic modulus and resilient modulus of soils |
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33 | (6) |
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1.9.1 Repeated triaxial test -- resilient modulus test |
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34 | (1) |
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1.9.2 Correlation between resilient modulus and CBR |
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35 | (1) |
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36 | (2) |
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1.9.4 Springbox equipment |
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38 | (1) |
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1.9.5 Correlation between mechanical parameters of soils and soil classification groups |
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39 | (1) |
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1.10 Compaction of soil materials on site |
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39 | (3) |
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1.11 Density tests in situ |
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42 | (9) |
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42 | (1) |
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1.11.2 Rubber balloon method |
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43 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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1.11.4 Drive-cylinder method |
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45 | (1) |
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1.11.5 Complex impedance method |
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45 | (1) |
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46 | (5) |
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51 | (44) |
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51 | (1) |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
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53 | (1) |
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2.7 Artificial aggregates |
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53 | (1) |
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2.8 Recycled (pulverised) aggregates |
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53 | (1) |
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54 | (1) |
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54 | (1) |
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2.11 Geometrical properties determination tests |
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54 | (12) |
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2.11.1 Particle size distribution - sieving method |
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54 | (4) |
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58 | (1) |
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2.11.1.2 Sieving procedure and aggregate gradation curve determination |
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59 | (1) |
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2.11.2 Particle shape tests of coarse aggregates |
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60 | (1) |
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2.11.2.1 Flakiness index test |
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60 | (1) |
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2.11.2.2 Shape index test |
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61 | (1) |
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2.11.3 Flat particles, elongated particles or flat and elongated particles test |
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61 | (1) |
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2.11.4 Crushed and broken surfaces test |
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62 | (1) |
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2.11.5 Flow coefficient test |
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62 | (1) |
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2.11.6 Assessment of cleanness of fine aggregates and fines |
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62 | (1) |
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2.11.6.1 Sand equivalent test |
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63 | (1) |
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2.11.6.2 Methylene blue test |
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64 | (2) |
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2.11.6.3 Grading of fines |
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66 | (1) |
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2.12 Physical properties determination tests |
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66 | (19) |
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2.12.1 Resistance to fragmentation and polishing/abrasion tests |
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66 | (1) |
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2.12.1.1 Resistance to fragmentation by the Los Angeles test |
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67 | (1) |
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2.12.1.2 Resistance to impact test |
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68 | (1) |
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2.12.1.3 Polished stone value test |
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69 | (2) |
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2.12.1.4 Aggregate abrasion value test |
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71 | (1) |
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2.12.1.5 Resistance to wear by the micro-Deval test |
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71 | (4) |
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2.12.1.6 Resistance to wear by abrasion from studded tyres -- Nordic test |
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75 | (1) |
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2.12.2 Particle density and water absorption tests -- general |
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76 | (1) |
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2.12.2.1 Determination of density of aggregate particles between 31.5 and 63 mm by wire-basket method |
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77 | (1) |
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2.12.2.2 Determination of density of aggregate particles between 4 and 31.5 mm -- pyknometer method |
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78 | (1) |
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2.12.2.3 Determination of density of aggregate particles between 0.063 and 4 mm -- pyknometer method |
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79 | (1) |
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2.12.2.4 Determination of predried particle density of aggregates (normative methods) |
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80 | (1) |
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2.12.2.5 Particle density of filler -- pyknometer method |
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80 | (1) |
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2.12.2.6 Determination of density of aggregate mix |
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81 | (1) |
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2.12.2.7 Determination of loose bulk density and voids |
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81 | (1) |
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2.12.3 Thermal and weathering tests |
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82 | (1) |
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2.12.3.1 Magnesium sulfate test |
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82 | (1) |
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2.12.3.2 Determination of resistance to freezing and thawing |
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82 | (1) |
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2.12.3.3 Determination of resistance to thermal shock |
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83 | (1) |
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2.12.3.4 Boiling test for `Sonnenbrand' signs on basalts |
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83 | (1) |
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2.12.4 Water content test |
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84 | (1) |
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2.12.5 Voids of dry compacted filler (Rigden test) |
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84 | (1) |
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2.12.6 Delta ring and ball test of filler for bituminous mixtures |
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85 | (1) |
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2.13 Chemical properties tests |
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85 | (3) |
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2.13.1 Petrographic description of aggregates |
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85 | (1) |
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2.13.2 Determination of lightweight contamination |
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85 | (1) |
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2.13.3 Determination of acid-soluble sulfates |
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85 | (1) |
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2.13.4 Determination of total sulfur content |
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85 | (1) |
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2.13.5 Unsoundness tests for blast-furnace and steel slags |
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86 | (1) |
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2.13.5.1 Dicalcium silicate disintegration of air-cooled blast-furnace slag |
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86 | (1) |
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2.13.5.2 Iron disintegration of air-cooled blast-furnace slag |
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86 | (1) |
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2.13.5.3 Volume stability (expansion) of steel slags |
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86 | (1) |
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2.13.6 Water solubility of filler and aggregates |
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86 | (1) |
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2.13.7 Water susceptibility of fillers for bituminous mixtures |
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87 | (1) |
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2.13.8 Water-soluble constituents in filler |
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87 | (1) |
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2.13.9 Calcium carbonate content of limestone filler aggregate |
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87 | (1) |
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2.13.10 Calcium hydroxide content of mixed filler |
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87 | (1) |
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2.14 Blending two or more aggregates |
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88 | (7) |
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2.14.1 Trial-and-error method |
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88 | (1) |
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2.14.2 Mathematical methods |
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88 | (1) |
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2.14.2.1 Linear equation method |
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88 | (3) |
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2.14.2.2 Least squares method |
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91 | (1) |
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91 | (1) |
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91 | (4) |
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3 Bitumen, bituminous binders and anti-stripping agents |
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95 | (78) |
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95 | (1) |
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96 | (1) |
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96 | (3) |
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97 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Venezuela and other natural asphalts (pitch lake asphalts) |
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98 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Rock asphalt and gilsonite |
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98 | (1) |
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3.2.4 Other natural rock asphalts |
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98 | (1) |
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99 | (1) |
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99 | (14) |
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3.4.1 Groups and grades of bitumen |
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101 | (1) |
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3.4.1.1 Paving grade bitumens |
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101 | (1) |
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3.4.1.2 Hard paving grade bitumens |
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102 | (2) |
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104 | (2) |
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3.4.2 Performance graded asphalt binders -- superpave |
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106 | (1) |
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3.4.3 Chemical composition of bitumen |
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107 | (3) |
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110 | (1) |
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111 | (1) |
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3.4.4 Changes in bitumen composition during distillation, mixing, laying and time in service |
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111 | (2) |
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3.5 Cut-back and fluxed bituminous binders |
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113 | (4) |
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3.5.1 Cut-back and fluxed bitumens according to CEN EN 15322 (2013) |
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113 | (3) |
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3.5.2 Cut-back asphalts according to American standards |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (15) |
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3.6.1 Types and classifications of bitumen emulsions |
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119 | (1) |
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3.6.2 Usage of bitumen emulsions with respect to setting rate |
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120 | (1) |
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120 | (5) |
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3.6.4 Breaking mechanism of bitumen emulsions |
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125 | (2) |
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3.6.5 Production of bitumen emulsions |
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127 | (1) |
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3.6.6 Properties of bitumen emulsion |
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128 | (1) |
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3.6.6.1 Storage stability of bitumen emulsion |
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128 | (1) |
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3.6.6.2 Viscosity of bitumen emulsion |
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129 | (2) |
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3.6.6.3 Adhesiveness of bitumen emulsion |
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131 | (1) |
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3.6.6.4 Breaking rate of bitumen emulsion |
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131 | (1) |
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3.7 Anti-stripping agents |
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132 | (7) |
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3.7.1 Types of anti-stripping agents |
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133 | (1) |
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3.7.2 Usage of anti-stripping agents |
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133 | (1) |
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3.7.2.1 Anti-stripping agents in surface dressings |
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133 | (1) |
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3.7.2.2 Anti-stripping agents in asphalts |
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133 | (1) |
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3.7.3 Test methods for determining susceptibility to stripping or affinity between aggregate and bitumen |
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134 | (1) |
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3.7.3.1 Rolling bottle test method |
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134 | (1) |
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3.7.3.2 Static test method |
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135 | (1) |
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3.7.3.3 Boiling water stripping test method |
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135 | (1) |
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3.7.3.4 Water sensitivity of bituminous specimens by determination of the indirect tensile |
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136 | (1) |
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3.7.3.5 Retained compressive strength index test |
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137 | (1) |
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3.7.3.6 Retained marshall stability test method |
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138 | (1) |
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3.7.3.7 Vialit plate shock test method |
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138 | (1) |
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3.7.3.8 Determination of cohesion of bituminous binders with the pendulum (Vialit) test |
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139 | (1) |
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3.8 Modified bitumens and special bitumens |
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139 | (18) |
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3.8.1 Usage and role of modified bitumen |
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140 | (1) |
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3.8.2 Bitumen modifiers, methods of modification and main changes to the properties of the bitumen |
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141 | (1) |
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3.8.3 Modification by thermoplastic elastomers |
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142 | (3) |
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3.8.3.1 Characteristic properties of elastomer-modified bitumen |
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145 | (1) |
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3.8.3.2 Characteristic properties of asphalts with elastomer-modified bitumen |
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145 | (2) |
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3.8.4 Modification of bitumen by thermoplastic polymers (plastics) |
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147 | (1) |
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3.8.4.1 Characteristic properties of modified bitumen and asphalts with thermoplastic polymers |
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148 | (1) |
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3.8.5 Modified bitumen with thermosetting polymers (resins) |
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148 | (1) |
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3.8.5.1 Characteristic properties of asphalts with thermosetting polymers |
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149 | (1) |
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3.8.6 Modification by chemical modifiers |
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150 | (1) |
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3.8.7 Natural asphalts as additives |
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151 | (1) |
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3.8.8 Addition of fillers to bitumen |
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151 | (1) |
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3.8.9 Addition of fibres to bitumen |
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151 | (1) |
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3.8.10 Addition of hydrocarbons |
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152 | (1) |
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152 | (1) |
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3.8.11.1 Multigrade bitumens |
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152 | (1) |
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3.8.11.2 Fuel-resistant bitumens |
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153 | (1) |
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3.8.11.3 Coloured bitumen |
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153 | (1) |
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3.8.11.4 Bitumens for joint and crack filling |
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153 | (1) |
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3.8.12 Specifications of polymer-modified bitumens |
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154 | (1) |
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3.8.13 Proposed grades of modified bitumen |
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154 | (3) |
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3.9 Handling of bituminous binders |
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157 | (16) |
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3.9.1 Transportation delivery |
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157 | (1) |
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158 | (1) |
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3.9.3 Temperatures of bituminous binders at stages of usage |
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158 | (1) |
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3.9.4 Health, safety and environmental issues of bitumens |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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3.9.4.2 Inhalation of vapour and fumes |
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160 | (1) |
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3.9.4.3 Toxicity of bitumen |
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161 | (1) |
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3.9.4.4 Contact with water |
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162 | (1) |
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162 | (1) |
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3.9.4.6 Skin and eye contamination |
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162 | (1) |
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3.9.4.7 Environmental aspects of bitumens |
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162 | (2) |
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164 | (9) |
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4 Laboratory tests and properties of bitumen and bitumen emulsion |
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173 | (48) |
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173 | (1) |
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173 | (2) |
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4.3 Softening point test (Left) |
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175 | (1) |
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176 | (1) |
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177 | (1) |
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178 | (1) |
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4.7 Elastic recovery test |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (8) |
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4.8.1 Types of viscometers |
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181 | (1) |
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4.8.2 Viscosity tests by rotational viscometers |
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182 | (1) |
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4.8.2.1 Rotating spindle viscometer |
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182 | (2) |
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4.8.2.2 Cone and plate viscometer |
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184 | (1) |
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4.8.2.3 Rotational paddle viscometer |
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184 | (1) |
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4.8.3 Viscosity test by capillary viscometers |
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184 | (1) |
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4.8.4 Viscosity test by efflux or cup viscometers |
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185 | (1) |
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4.8.5 Viscosity tests by shear plate viscometers |
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186 | (1) |
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4.8.5.1 Sliding plate viscometer |
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186 | (1) |
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4.8.5.2 Dynamic shear rheometer |
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186 | (2) |
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4.9 Fraass breaking point |
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188 | (1) |
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4.10 Heukelom chart -- bitumen test data chart |
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189 | (1) |
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4.11 Resistance to hardening tests |
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190 | (3) |
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4.11.1 Rolling thin oven test (RTOT) and rotating flask test (RFT) |
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190 | (1) |
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4.11.2 Thin film oven test (TFOT) method |
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191 | (1) |
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4.11.3 Accelerated long-term ageing/conditioning by the rotating cylinder method (RCAT) |
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192 | (1) |
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4.12 Flash and fire point -- Cleveland open cup method |
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193 | (1) |
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194 | (1) |
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194 | (1) |
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4.15 Cohesion with pendulum test |
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194 | (1) |
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4.16 Storage stability test |
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195 | (1) |
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4.17 Mineral matter or ash in asphalt materials |
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195 | (1) |
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4.18 Capillary-stoppered pycnometer test for determination of density and specific gravity of bitumen |
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195 | (1) |
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4.19 Determination of water in bitumen by distillation method |
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196 | (1) |
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4.20 Bitumen emulsion tests |
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196 | (9) |
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4.20.1 Particle polarity test |
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196 | (1) |
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4.20.2 Breaking value of cationic bitumen emulsion -- mineral filler method |
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197 | (1) |
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4.20.3 Mixing stability with cement of bitumen emulsions |
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197 | (1) |
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4.20.4 Determination of fines mixing time of cationic bitumen emulsions |
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197 | (1) |
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4.20.5 Determination of penetration power of bitumen emulsions |
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198 | (1) |
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4.20.6 Determination of water content in bitumen emulsions -- azeotropic distillation method |
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198 | (1) |
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4.20.7 Determination of bitumen residue by evaporation of bitumen emulsion |
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199 | (1) |
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4.20.8 Determination of bitumen residue by moisture analyser |
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199 | (1) |
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4.20.9 Determination of residual binder and oil distillate from bitumen emulsions by distillation |
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200 | (1) |
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4.20.10 Determination of efflux time of bitumen emulsion by the efflux viscometer |
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201 | (1) |
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4.20.11 Dynamic viscosity test |
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201 | (1) |
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4.20.12 Determination of residue on sieving and storage stability by sieving |
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201 | (1) |
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4.20.13 Determination of settling tendency after n-days |
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202 | (1) |
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4.20.14 Adhesivity of bituminous emulsions by water immersion test |
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203 | (1) |
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4.20.14.1 With emulsion of limited storage stability (breaking index <120) |
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203 | (1) |
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4.20.14.2 With emulsions that can be stored (breaking index >120) |
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203 | (1) |
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4.20.15 Coating ability and water resistance test |
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204 | (1) |
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4.20.16 Demulsibility test |
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204 | (1) |
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4.20.17 Identification test for RS cationic bitumen emulsion |
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205 | (1) |
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4.21 Mechanical properties of bitumen |
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205 | (8) |
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4.21.1 Viscoelastic behaviour of bitumen |
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205 | (2) |
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4.21.2 Stiffness of bitumen |
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207 | (1) |
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4.21.3 Determination of stiffness modulus of bitumen |
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208 | (1) |
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4.21.4 Estimation of stiffness modulus |
|
|
209 | (1) |
|
4.21.5 Determination of tensile strength of bitumen |
|
|
209 | (2) |
|
4.21.6 Prediction of strain at break |
|
|
211 | (1) |
|
4.21.7 Flexural creep stiffness |
|
|
211 | (2) |
|
4.21.8 Fatigue resistance |
|
|
213 | (1) |
|
4.22 Performance-graded asphalt binder tests |
|
|
213 | (8) |
|
4.22.1 Flash and fire test points by Cleveland open cup |
|
|
213 | (1) |
|
4.22.2 Rotational viscometer for viscosity determination |
|
|
213 | (1) |
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|
213 | (1) |
|
4.22.4 Rolling thin film oven test |
|
|
213 | (1) |
|
4.22.5 Accelerated ageing by PAV |
|
|
213 | (2) |
|
4.22.6 Bending beam rheometer test for flexural creep stiffness |
|
|
215 | (1) |
|
4.22.7 Direct tension test for fracture properties |
|
|
215 | (1) |
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215 | (6) |
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221 | (76) |
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|
221 | (1) |
|
5.2 Determination and role of asphalts |
|
|
221 | (1) |
|
5.3 Characteristic types of asphalts |
|
|
222 | (2) |
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|
|
224 | (28) |
|
5.4.1 AC in accordance to European standards |
|
|
224 | (1) |
|
5.4.1.1 Constituent material requirements |
|
|
224 | (1) |
|
5.4.1.2 Requirements for the target composition of AC |
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
5.4.1.3 General requirements |
|
|
225 | (4) |
|
5.4.1.4 Empirical requirements |
|
|
229 | (3) |
|
5.4.1.5 Fundamental requirements |
|
|
232 | (1) |
|
5.4.1.6 Tolerances and test frequencies for conformity assessment |
|
|
233 | (1) |
|
5.4.2 AC in accordance to American standards |
|
|
233 | (2) |
|
5.4.2.1 Superpave mix design |
|
|
235 | (3) |
|
5.4.2.2 Marshall mix design |
|
|
238 | (4) |
|
5.4.2.3 Modified Marshall mix design for mixtures with maximum nominal aggregate size >25 mm |
|
|
242 | (1) |
|
5.4.2.4 Tolerances from target mix |
|
|
242 | (1) |
|
5.4.2.5 Volumetric properties of compacted bituminous mixture |
|
|
242 | (5) |
|
5.4.2.6 Test method for determination of the theoretical maximum specific gravity and density |
|
|
247 | (1) |
|
5.4.2.7 Test method for determination of bulk specific gravity and density of compacted bituminous mixture |
|
|
247 | (1) |
|
5.4.2.8 Bitumen film thickness |
|
|
248 | (1) |
|
5.4.3 AC for airport pavements |
|
|
249 | (2) |
|
5.4.4 Comments on European and American composition methods of AC |
|
|
251 | (1) |
|
|
|
252 | (1) |
|
5.5 AC for very thin layers |
|
|
252 | (5) |
|
5.5.1 BBTM in accordance to European standards |
|
|
253 | (1) |
|
5.5.2 Constituent materials |
|
|
253 | (1) |
|
|
|
253 | (1) |
|
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|
253 | (1) |
|
|
|
254 | (1) |
|
5.5.3 Mixture composition |
|
|
254 | (1) |
|
|
|
254 | (1) |
|
|
|
255 | (1) |
|
|
|
255 | (1) |
|
|
|
255 | (1) |
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|
|
255 | (1) |
|
5.5.4.2 Water sensitivity |
|
|
256 | (1) |
|
5.5.4.3 Mechanical stability |
|
|
256 | (1) |
|
5.5.4.4 Resistance to fuel and de-icing fluid for application on airfields |
|
|
256 | (1) |
|
5.5.4.5 Resistance to abrasion by studded tyres |
|
|
256 | (1) |
|
|
|
257 | (1) |
|
5.5.5.1 Temperature of the mixture |
|
|
257 | (1) |
|
5.5.5.2 Coating and homogeneity |
|
|
257 | (1) |
|
5.5.6 Tolerance and test frequencies for conformity assessment |
|
|
257 | (1) |
|
|
|
257 | (11) |
|
5.6.1 PA in accordance to European standards |
|
|
258 | (1) |
|
5.6.1.1 Constituent materials |
|
|
258 | (1) |
|
5.6.1.2 Mixture composition |
|
|
259 | (1) |
|
5.6.1.3 Mixture properties |
|
|
260 | (2) |
|
5.6.1.4 Complementary tests for application on airfields |
|
|
262 | (1) |
|
5.6.1.5 Other requirements |
|
|
262 | (1) |
|
5.6.1.6 Basic requirements of PA to avoid over-specification |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
5.6.1.7 Tolerances, test frequencies for finished asphalt and conformity assessment |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
5.6.2 PA in accordance to American standards |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
5.6.2.1 Constituent materials |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
|
|
264 | (1) |
|
5.6.2.3 Mix design of OGFC |
|
|
265 | (2) |
|
5.6.2.4 Production and placement |
|
|
267 | (1) |
|
5.6.3 PA in accordance to FAA |
|
|
267 | (1) |
|
|
|
268 | (5) |
|
5.7.1 HRA in accordance to European standards |
|
|
269 | (1) |
|
5.7.2 Constituent materials |
|
|
269 | (1) |
|
5.7.3 Mixture composition |
|
|
269 | (1) |
|
|
|
269 | (1) |
|
|
|
269 | (1) |
|
|
|
270 | (1) |
|
|
|
270 | (1) |
|
|
|
270 | (1) |
|
|
|
270 | (1) |
|
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
5.7.4.2 Water sensitivity |
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
5.7.4.3 Resistance to permanent deformation |
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
5.7.4.5 Resistance to fuel and resistance to de-icing fluid for application on airfields |
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
|
|
272 | (1) |
|
5.7.5.1 Temperature of the mixture |
|
|
272 | (1) |
|
5.7.5.2 Coating and homogeneity |
|
|
272 | (1) |
|
5.7.6 Tolerances, test frequencies for finished asphalt and conformity assessment |
|
|
272 | (1) |
|
|
|
273 | (5) |
|
5.8.1 SMA in accordance to European standards |
|
|
273 | (1) |
|
5.8.1.1 Constituent materials |
|
|
273 | (1) |
|
5.8.1.2 Mixture composition |
|
|
273 | (1) |
|
5.8.1.3 Mixture properties |
|
|
274 | (2) |
|
5.8.1.4 Other requirements |
|
|
276 | (1) |
|
5.8.1.5 Tolerances, test frequencies for finished asphalt and conformity assessment |
|
|
276 | (1) |
|
5.8.2 SMA in accordance to American standards |
|
|
277 | (1) |
|
5.8.2.1 Constituent materials |
|
|
277 | (1) |
|
|
|
277 | (1) |
|
5.8.2.3 Target composition of the bituminous mixture |
|
|
277 | (1) |
|
|
|
278 | (3) |
|
5.9.1 MA in accordance to European standards |
|
|
278 | (1) |
|
5.9.1.1 Constituent materials |
|
|
278 | (1) |
|
5.9.1.2 Mixture composition |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
5.9.1.3 Mixture properties |
|
|
280 | (1) |
|
5.9.1.4 Other requirements |
|
|
280 | (1) |
|
5.9.1.5 Tolerances and conformity assessment |
|
|
281 | (1) |
|
5.9.2 MA in accordance to American standards |
|
|
281 | (1) |
|
|
|
281 | (1) |
|
5.11 High-modulus asphalts |
|
|
281 | (3) |
|
|
|
284 | (5) |
|
|
|
285 | (1) |
|
5.12.2 Performance of WMA and HWMA |
|
|
286 | (1) |
|
5.12.3 Specifications of WMA |
|
|
287 | (1) |
|
5.12.4 Mix design practices for WMA |
|
|
287 | (1) |
|
5.12.4.1 NCHRP mix design practice for WMA -- brief description |
|
|
287 | (2) |
|
5.13 Other types of asphalts |
|
|
289 | (8) |
|
|
|
289 | (8) |
|
|
|
297 | (36) |
|
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
6.2 Characteristic types of cold asphalts |
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
6.3 Dense-graded cold asphalts |
|
|
298 | (6) |
|
6.3.1 Constituent materials |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
6.3.1.4 Aggregate mixtures |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
6.3.1.6 Chemical additive |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
6.3.2 Composition of DGCAs |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
6.3.3 Modified Marshall method for DGCAs |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
6.3.3.1 Compatibility of bituminous emulsion and determination of per cent of added water |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
6.3.3.2 Determination of mixture properties for optimum performance |
|
|
300 | (2) |
|
6.3.3.3 Creep coefficient |
|
|
302 | (1) |
|
|
|
303 | (1) |
|
6.4 Open-graded cold asphalts |
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
6.4.1 Constituent materials |
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
6.4.1.2 Bituminous emulsion |
|
|
305 | (1) |
|
|
|
305 | (1) |
|
|
|
305 | (1) |
|
6.4.2 Composition of OGCAs |
|
|
305 | (1) |
|
6.5 Production of cold asphalt mixtures |
|
|
305 | (3) |
|
6.5.1 Production in a central plant |
|
|
306 | (1) |
|
6.5.2 Production in-place |
|
|
306 | (1) |
|
6.5.2.1 Travel plant mixing |
|
|
306 | (1) |
|
|
|
307 | (1) |
|
6.5.2.3 Rotary/reclaimer mixing |
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
6.6 Laying and compaction of cold asphalt mixtures |
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
6.7 Quality control of cold asphalt mixtures |
|
|
309 | (1) |
|
6.8 Cold asphalts for slurry surfacing |
|
|
309 | (24) |
|
6.8.1 Constituent materials |
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
6.8.1.1 Bituminous emulsion |
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
6.8.2 Aggregate gradation |
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
6.8.3 Mix design for slurry surfacing |
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
6.8.3.1 Mix design procedure for slurry seal |
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
6.8.3.2 Mix design procedure for micro-surfacing |
|
|
313 | (2) |
|
6.8.3.3 Tests on slurry surfacing mix according to ENs |
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
6.8.3.4 Mix design for slurry surfacing on airfields |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
6.8.4 Technical requirements of slurry surfacing based on visual assessment and surface characteristics |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
6.8.5 Mixing and laying of slurry surfacing |
|
|
317 | (2) |
|
6.8.6 Quality control during laying slurry surfacing |
|
|
319 | (1) |
|
6.8.7 Evaluation of conformity factory production control of slurry surfacing |
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
|
|
321 | (2) |
|
|
|
323 | (2) |
|
|
|
325 | (5) |
|
|
|
330 | (3) |
|
7 Fundamental mechanical properties of asphalts and laboratory tests |
|
|
333 | (66) |
|
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
7.2 Stiffness modulus of asphalts |
|
|
333 | (2) |
|
|
|
335 | (2) |
|
7.4 Determination of stiffness modulus and other moduli |
|
|
337 | (15) |
|
7.4.1 Indirect tensile test on cylindrical specimens (IT-CY) |
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
7.4.1.1 Indicative stiffness modulus results |
|
|
339 | (1) |
|
7.4.2 Cyclic indirect tension test on cylindrical specimens (CIT-CY) |
|
|
339 | (2) |
|
7.4.3 Two-point bending test on trapezoidal (2PB-TR) or prismatic (2PB-PR) specimens |
|
|
341 | (2) |
|
|
|
343 | (1) |
|
7.4.4 Three- or four-point bending test on prismatic specimens (3PB-PR or 4PB-PR) |
|
|
343 | (1) |
|
7.4.5 Direct tension-compression test on cylindrical specimens (DTC-CY) |
|
|
344 | (1) |
|
7.4.6 Direct tension test on cylindrical or prismatic specimens (DT-CY) |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
7.4.6.2 Stiffness modulus |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
7.4.7 Dynamic modulus test |
|
|
346 | (3) |
|
7.4.8 Resilient modulus test by indirect tension |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
7.4.9 Complex shear modulus and permanent shear strain test |
|
|
350 | (2) |
|
7.4.10 Complex shear modulus test using a DSR |
|
|
352 | (1) |
|
7.5 Prediction of asphalt stiffness |
|
|
352 | (4) |
|
7.5.1 Other prediction models of asphalt stiffness |
|
|
354 | (2) |
|
7.6 Permanent deformation of asphalts |
|
|
356 | (21) |
|
7.6.1 Behaviour of bituminous mixture under creep (static) and cyclic compressive loading |
|
|
357 | (1) |
|
7.6.2 Cyclic compression tests |
|
|
358 | (1) |
|
7.6.2.1 Uniaxial cyclic compression test with confinement -- method A |
|
|
359 | (2) |
|
7.6.2.2 Triaxal cyclic compression test -- method B |
|
|
361 | (3) |
|
7.6.2.3 Flow number test using the AMPT |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
7.6.2.4 Indirect tensile strength at high temperatures |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
7.6.4 Permanent shear strain and complex shear modulus test using the SST |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
7.6.5 Wheel-tracking tests by European norms |
|
|
367 | (1) |
|
7.6.5.1 Testing with the use of a large-size device, in air |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
7.6.5.2 Testing with the use of an extra-large-size device, in air |
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
7.6.5.3 Testing with the use of a small-size device, procedures A and B, in air |
|
|
369 | (2) |
|
7.6.5.4 Testing with the use of a small-size device, procedure B, in water |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
7.6.5.5 Wheel-tracking test by a small device, BS 598-110 (1996), in air |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
7.6.6 Evaluation of asphalts based on rut resistance employing European wheel-tracking test procedures |
|
|
372 | (2) |
|
7.6.7 Wheel-tracking tests by American standards |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
7.6.7.1 Wheel-tracking test with the use of the APA device |
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
7.6.7.2 Wheel-tracking test with the use of the Hamburg device |
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
7.6.8 Evaluation of bituminous mixtures on rut resistance employing US testing procedures |
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
|
|
377 | (13) |
|
7.7.1 Determination of fatigue characteristics from laboratory testing |
|
|
378 | (3) |
|
7.7.2 Resistance to fatigue tests |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
7.7.2.2 Age of the specimens |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
7.7.2.3 Indirect tensile test on cylindrical-shaped specimens |
|
|
382 | (2) |
|
7.7.2.4 Two-point bending test on trapezoidal-shaped specimens |
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
7.7.2.5 Two-point bending test on prismatic-shaped specimens |
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
7.7.2.6 Three-point bending test on prismatic-shaped specimens |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
7.7.2.7 Four-point bending test on prismatic-shaped specimens |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
7.7.2.8 Repeated flexural bending test according to ASTM D 7460 (2010) |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
7.7.3 Prediction of fatigue performance |
|
|
388 | (2) |
|
7.8 Thermal cracking of asphalts |
|
|
390 | (9) |
|
7.8.1 Creep compliance and strength of hot mix asphalts using the indirect tensile test device |
|
|
390 | (3) |
|
7.8.2 Determination of fracture energy of asphalt-aggregate mixtures using the disk-shaped compact tension geometry |
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
|
|
393 | (6) |
|
8 Production, transportation, laying and compaction of hot mix asphalts |
|
|
399 | (28) |
|
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
8.2 Types of asphalt production plants |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
|
|
400 | (4) |
|
8.3.1 Conventional batch plant |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
8.3.1.1 Basic components of a batch plant unit |
|
|
401 | (3) |
|
8.3.2 Batch heater plants |
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
|
|
404 | (5) |
|
8.4.1 Parallel-flow drum-mix plants |
|
|
404 | (2) |
|
8.4.2 Counterflow drum-mix plant |
|
|
406 | (1) |
|
8.4.3 Newer continuous processing mixers/plants |
|
|
407 | (2) |
|
8.5 Transportation of hot mix asphalts |
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
|
|
409 | (7) |
|
|
|
411 | (1) |
|
|
|
411 | (1) |
|
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
8.6.1.4 Flow control gates |
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
8.6.1.7 Automations and automatic level and slope control device |
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
|
|
413 | (1) |
|
8.6.2.1 Screed components |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
8.6.3 Critical points during paving |
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
8.7 Compaction of asphalts |
|
|
416 | (11) |
|
8.7.1 Factors affecting compaction |
|
|
417 | (1) |
|
8.7.1.1 Aggregate material |
|
|
417 | (1) |
|
8.7.1.2 Bitumen grade and compaction temperature |
|
|
418 | (1) |
|
8.7.1.3 Environmental conditions |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
8.7.1.5 Compaction equipment |
|
|
419 | (3) |
|
8.7.1.6 Rolling procedure |
|
|
422 | (2) |
|
|
|
424 | (3) |
|
|
|
425 | (2) |
|
9 Quality control of production and acceptance of asphalts |
|
|
427 | (26) |
|
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
9.3 Methods of material sampling |
|
|
428 | (3) |
|
9.3.1 Methods of sampling aggregate materials |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
9.3.1.1 Sampling from a stockpile |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
9.3.1.2 Sampling from a conveyor belt |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
9.3.1.3 Sampling from hot bins |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
9.3.2 Methods of sampling bituminous binders |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
9.3.3 Methods of sampling hot mix asphalt |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
9.3.3.1 Sampling from a lorry load |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
9.3.3.2 Sampling from the augers of the paver |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
9.3.3.3 Sampling of workable material in heaps |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
9.3.3.4 Sampling from laid but not rolled material |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
9.3.3.5 Sampling from laid and compacted material by coring |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
9.3.3.6 Sampling from laid and compacted material by sawing out slabs |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
9.3.3.7 Sampling from the slat conveyor of a continuous process plant |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
9.3.3.8 Sampling coated chipping from stockpiles |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
9.4 Inspection and testing of incoming constituent materials and delivered product |
|
|
431 | (2) |
|
9.4.1 Inspection and testing of incoming constituent materials |
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
9.4.2 Inspection and testing of finished bituminous mixture |
|
|
431 | (2) |
|
9.5 Acceptance of delivered and laid asphalt |
|
|
433 | (4) |
|
|
|
434 | (1) |
|
9.5.2 Aggregate gradation |
|
|
434 | (1) |
|
9.5.3 Volumetric properties of the asphalt |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
9.5.4 Asphalt temperature |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
9.5.5 Compaction achieved |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
9.5.7 Surface irregularities and evenness (roughness) |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
9.6 Methods for determination of binder content |
|
|
437 | (16) |
|
9.6.1 Binder extraction methods |
|
|
437 | (2) |
|
9.6.1.1 Cold extraction using a centrifuge extractor method |
|
|
439 | (3) |
|
9.6.1.2 Hot extraction paper filter method |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
9.6.1.3 Hot extraction wire mesh filter method |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
9.6.1.4 Hot extraction soxhlet extractor method |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
9.6.1.5 Cold extraction bottle rotation machine method/rotary bottle extraction method |
|
|
444 | (1) |
|
9.6.1.6 Cold extraction by agitation |
|
|
444 | (1) |
|
9.6.2 Total binder recovery methods |
|
|
445 | (2) |
|
9.6.3 Determination of residual mineral matter in the binder extract by incineration |
|
|
447 | (1) |
|
9.6.4 Guidance on determination of soluble binder content of asphalts with polymer-modified binders |
|
|
447 | (1) |
|
9.6.5 Quantitative extraction and recovery of the binder method |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
9.6.6 Binder recovery by the ignition method |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
9.6.7 Binder content determination by the nuclear method |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
|
|
450 | (3) |
|
10 Layers of flexible pavement |
|
|
453 | (38) |
|
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
|
|
454 | (4) |
|
10.2.1 Bearing capacity of subgrade and influencing factors |
|
|
455 | (2) |
|
10.2.2 Estimation of subgrade CBR |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
|
|
458 | (5) |
|
10.3.1 Materials for capping layer |
|
|
458 | (2) |
|
10.3.2 Soil stabilisation |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
10.3.3 Compaction of capping layer |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
10.3.4 Use of geotextiles and geotextile-related products |
|
|
461 | (2) |
|
|
|
463 | (1) |
|
10.4.1 Sub-base course material |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
|
|
464 | (18) |
|
10.5.1 Materials for base and sub-base courses |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
10.5.2 Requirements of unbound aggregate mixtures according to European specifications |
|
|
465 | (2) |
|
10.5.2.1 Factory production quality control |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
10.5.3 Requirements of aggregates for unbound mixtures according to American standards |
|
|
467 | (2) |
|
10.5.4 Determination of water content for optimal density and wetting/laying procedures of unbound material |
|
|
469 | (1) |
|
10.5.5 Compaction of unbound base and sub-base layers |
|
|
470 | (2) |
|
10.5.6 Strength and stiffness of unbound materials and unbound layers |
|
|
472 | (1) |
|
10.5.7 Hydraulically bound materials for bases and sub-bases |
|
|
473 | (1) |
|
10.5.8 European practice for HBMs |
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
10.5.8.1 Hydraulic binders or binder constituents |
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
10.5.8.2 Aggregate requirements for HBMs |
|
|
475 | (1) |
|
10.5.8.3 Requirements of treated soil by hydraulic binders |
|
|
476 | (1) |
|
10.5.8.4 Laboratory mixture design procedure |
|
|
477 | (1) |
|
10.5.8.5 General requirements for mixing and layer construction of HBM |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
10.5.8.6 Testing and quality control of HBM |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
10.5.9 American practice for HBMs |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
10.5.9.1 Aggregate and CSM requirements |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
10.5.9.2 Laboratory mixture design procedure |
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
10.5.9.3 General requirements for mixing and layer construction of CSM |
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
10.5.9.4 Testing and quality control of CSM |
|
|
481 | (1) |
|
10.5.9.5 Elastic modulus, resilient modulus and flexural strength for design purpose |
|
|
481 | (1) |
|
|
|
482 | (2) |
|
|
|
482 | (1) |
|
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
10.6.3.1 Types of asphalts for asphalt base, binder course and surface layers |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
10.7 Poisson's ratio of paving and subgrade materials |
|
|
484 | (7) |
|
|
|
485 | (6) |
|
11 Methods determining stresses and deflections |
|
|
491 | (20) |
|
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
11.2 One-Layer System -- Boussinesq Theory |
|
|
491 | (4) |
|
11.2.1 Foster--Ahlvin diagrams |
|
|
492 | (2) |
|
11.2.2 Elastic deflection |
|
|
494 | (1) |
|
11.3 Two-Layer System -- Burmister Theory |
|
|
495 | (6) |
|
11.3.1 Determination of surface deflection |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
11.3.2 Odemark's equivalent thickness concept |
|
|
500 | (1) |
|
11.3.2.1 Surface deformation using Odemark's equivalent thickness concept |
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
11.4 Three or more layer system |
|
|
501 | (4) |
|
11.4.1 Determination of stresses/strains from tables or nomographs |
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
11.4.1.1 Determination of stresses and deflection using Iwanow's nomographs |
|
|
502 | (3) |
|
11.5 Determination of stresses, strains and displacements in a multi-layer system by computer programs |
|
|
505 | (6) |
|
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
|
|
505 | (2) |
|
11.5.3 ELSYM5, KENLAYER and WESLEA software |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
|
508 | (3) |
|
12 Traffic and traffic assessment |
|
|
511 | (20) |
|
|
|
511 | (1) |
|
|
|
511 | (2) |
|
12.3 Vehicle classification |
|
|
513 | (2) |
|
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
12.5 Measurement of vehicle axle load |
|
|
516 | (5) |
|
|
|
516 | (2) |
|
12.5.2 Components of the WIM system |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
12.5.2.1 Weight (mass) sensor |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
12.5.2.2 Vehicle classification sensor or identification sensor |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
12.5.2.3 Data storage and processing unit |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
12.5.2.4 User communication unit |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
12.5.3 Factors affecting performance of the WIM system |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
12.5.3.1 Location and road geometry at weigh station |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
12.5.3.2 Pavement characteristics |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
12.5.3.3 Environmental characteristics |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
12.5.4 Calibration of the WIM system |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
12.5.5 Available WIM systems |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
12.6 Contact area and pressure |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
12.7 The concept of equivalent standard axle loading - equivalency factors for flexible pavements |
|
|
522 | (4) |
|
12.7.1 Determination of the cumulative number of ESAL |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
12.8 Equivalency factors for rigid pavements |
|
|
526 | (5) |
|
|
|
527 | (4) |
|
13 Flexible pavement design methodologies |
|
|
531 | (56) |
|
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
13.2 Design criteria for flexible pavements |
|
|
532 | (3) |
|
13.3 Asphalt institute pavement design methodology |
|
|
535 | (9) |
|
13.3.1 Determination of cumulative ESAL |
|
|
535 | (1) |
|
13.3.2 Selection of subgrade resilient modulus |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
13.3.3 Selection of layer materials |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
13.3.3.1 Unbound aggregate for base and sub-base |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
13.3.3.2 Asphalts for surface and base mixtures |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
13.3.4 Selection of bitumen grade |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
13.3.5 Thickness determination (procedure) |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
13.3.5.1 Thickness determination for unbound flexible pavement |
|
|
538 | (2) |
|
13.3.5.2 Thickness determination for full-depth pavement |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
13.3.5.3 Thickness determination for pavement with cold asphalt |
|
|
540 | (3) |
|
13.3.6 Planned stage construction |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
|
|
544 | (1) |
|
13.4 AASHTO pavement design methodology |
|
|
544 | (9) |
|
|
|
544 | (2) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
13.4.2.4 Environmental factors |
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
13.4.3 Pavement performance criteria |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
13.4.4 Material and layer properties |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
13.4.4.1 Subgrade material -- effective resilient modulus |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
13.4.4.2 Pavement layer materials -- layer moduli |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
13.4.4.3 Structural layer coefficients |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
13.4.5 Pavement structural characteristics |
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
13.4.6 Determination of structural number |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
13.4.7 Determination of pavement thickness |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
13.4.7.1 Selection of layer thickness |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
13.4.7.2 Layered design analysis |
|
|
552 | (1) |
|
13.4.8 Swelling or frost heave |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
13.4.9 Costing and economic analysis |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
13.5 UK flexible pavement design methodology |
|
|
553 | (13) |
|
13.5.1 Determination of design traffic |
|
|
555 | (2) |
|
13.5.2 Subgrade design CBR and surface stiffness modulus |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
13.5.3 Foundation classes |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
13.5.3.1 Definitions to expressions used in Figure 13.14 and in the methodology |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
13.5.4.1 Determination of foundation thickness for restricted design |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
13.5.4.2 Determination of foundation thickness for performance design |
|
|
560 | (3) |
|
13.5.5 Cases where subgrade CBR is low (CBR < 2.5%) |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
13.5.6 Flexible pavement design |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
13.5.7 Selection of pavement material |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
13.5.7.1 Asphalt base and binder course material |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
13.5.7.2 HBMs for base layer |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
13.5.7.3 Surface course material |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
13.5.8 Determination of flexible pavement with asphalt base |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
13.5.9 Determination of flexible pavement with HBM base |
|
|
566 | (1) |
|
|
|
566 | (1) |
|
13.6 AUTh flexible pavement design methodology |
|
|
566 | (7) |
|
|
|
566 | (1) |
|
13.6.2 Determination of design traffic ESAL |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
13.6.3 Determination of design subgrade CBR |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
13.6.4 Determination of MAAT |
|
|
567 | (2) |
|
13.6.5 Thickness determination of capping layer |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
13.6.6 Thickness determination of base/sub-base |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
13.6.7 Thickness determination of bituminous layers |
|
|
570 | (2) |
|
13.6.8 Selection of surfacing material |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
13.6.9 Planned stage construction and economic analysis |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
13.6.10 Economic analysis |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
13.7 Shell flexible pavement design methodology |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
13.8 French flexible pavement design methodology |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
13.9 Australian flexible pavement design methodology |
|
|
575 | (2) |
|
13.10 The Nottingham University/mobil design method |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
13.11 Other pavement design methods |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
13.12 AASHTO mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide |
|
|
578 | (9) |
|
|
|
578 | (2) |
|
13.12.2 MEPDG for flexible pavements |
|
|
580 | (2) |
|
|
|
582 | (5) |
|
14 Rigid pavements and design methodologies |
|
|
587 | (46) |
|
|
|
587 | (2) |
|
14.2 Subgrade and layers of rigid pavements |
|
|
589 | (4) |
|
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
14.2.1.1 Swelling/shrinkage of subgrade |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
14.2.1.2 Frost protection of subgrade |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
14.2.1.3 Drainage of the subgrade |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
14.2.3 Concrete layer and constituents of concrete |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
14.2.4 Constituents of concrete |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
14.2.4.3 Water and admixtures |
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
14.2.5 Concrete and concrete strength |
|
|
592 | (1) |
|
14.2.6 Elastic modulus and strength |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
14.3 Consideration of stresses that developed on a concrete slab |
|
|
593 | (3) |
|
14.3.1 Stresses attributed to traffic loads |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
14.3.2.1 Contraction stresses |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
14.3.2.2 Expansion stresses |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
14.3.2.3 Warping stresses |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
14.3.3 Temperature-friction stresses |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
14.3.4 Stresses attributed to moisture change |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
14.4 Cracking of fresh and hardened concrete |
|
|
596 | (9) |
|
14.4.1 Cracks in fresh concrete |
|
|
597 | (1) |
|
14.4.1.1 Plastic settlement cracking |
|
|
597 | (1) |
|
14.4.1.2 Plastic shrinkage cracking |
|
|
597 | (1) |
|
14.4.2 Cracks in hardened concrete |
|
|
598 | (1) |
|
14.4.2.1 Crazing cracking |
|
|
598 | (1) |
|
14.4.2.2 Early thermal contraction cracking |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
14.4.2.3 Drying shrinkage cracking |
|
|
599 | (2) |
|
14.4.2.4 Chemical reaction cracking |
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
14.4.2.5 Poor construction practice cracking |
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
14.4.2.6 Cracking attributed to errors in design and detailing |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
14.4.2.7 Cracking attributed to externally applied loads |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
14.4.2.8 Weathering cracking or defrost cracking |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
14.4.2.9 Cracking attributed to corrosion of reinforcement |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
14.4.2.10 Cracking attributed to overloads |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
14.4.3 The effect of surface cracking and its repair |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
14.4.4 The role of joints |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
14.4.5 Hot weather concreting |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
14.5 Joints in concrete pavements |
|
|
605 | (6) |
|
14.5.1 Contraction joints |
|
|
607 | (1) |
|
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
14.5.2.1 Sealants and joint fillers |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
|
|
609 | (2) |
|
14.5.4 Joints attributed to interruption of works |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
14.6 The function of steel reinforcement |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
14.6.1 Amount and position of reinforcement |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
14.6.1.1 Jointed reinforced concrete pavements |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
14.6.1.2 Continuously reinforced concrete pavements |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
14.7 Pre-stressed concrete |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
14.8 Fibre-reinforced concrete |
|
|
613 | (1) |
|
14.9 Rigid pavement design methodologies |
|
|
613 | (1) |
|
14.10 UK rigid pavement design methodology |
|
|
614 | (4) |
|
14.10.1 Design parameters |
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
14.10.1.2 Subgrade and foundation layers |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
14.10.1.3 Moisture and frost |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
14.10.2 Thickness determination of slab with continuous reinforcement |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
14.10.2.1 Thickness and type of asphalt overlay |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
14.10.2.2 Steel reinforcement |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
14.10.3 Thickness determination of unreinforced and jointed reinforced concrete slab |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
14.10.3.1 Maximum transverse joint spacings for URC pavements |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
14.10.3.2 Maximum transverse joint spacings for JRC pavements |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
14.10.4 Concrete surfacing and materials |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
14.11 AASHTO rigid pavement design methodology |
|
|
618 | (4) |
|
14.11.1 Thickness determination of slab (all cases) |
|
|
618 | (3) |
|
14.11.2 Determination of reinforcement in jointed reinforced slabs |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
14.11.3 Determination of tie bar spacing |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
14.11.4 Determination of dowel bars |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
14.11.6 Determination of reinforcement in CRCPs |
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
14.11.7 Pre-stressed concrete pavement |
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
14.12 Australian rigid pavement design methodology |
|
|
622 | (3) |
|
14.12.1 Determination of concrete slab thickness |
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
14.12.2 Determination of reinforcement |
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
14.12.3 Dowel and tie bars |
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
14.12.4 Concrete surface finishes |
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
14.13 MEPDG for rigid pavements |
|
|
625 | (2) |
|
14.14 Construction of rigid pavements |
|
|
627 | (6) |
|
|
|
628 | (5) |
|
15 Pavement maintenance rehabilitation and strengthening |
|
|
633 | (76) |
|
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
15.3 Maintenance, rehabilitation and pavement life |
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
15.4 Typical surface distresses in flexible pavements |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
15.5 Cracking in flexible pavements |
|
|
636 | (9) |
|
15.5.1 Crack sealing/filling -- general |
|
|
636 | (1) |
|
15.5.2 Alligator (fatigue) cracking |
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
15.5.4 Paving joint and widening cracking |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
15.5.7 Shrinkage cracking |
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
|
|
642 | (2) |
|
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
15.5.8 Linear wheel path cracks |
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
15.5.9 Helical or diagonal cracks |
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
15.6 Retardation of reflective cracking treatments and asphalt reinforcement techniques |
|
|
645 | (3) |
|
15.6.1 Geosynthetics for asphalts |
|
|
645 | (2) |
|
15.6.2 Stress-absorbing membrane |
|
|
647 | (1) |
|
15.6.3 Fibre-reinforced membrane |
|
|
648 | (1) |
|
15.7 Surface distortions in flexible pavements |
|
|
648 | (5) |
|
|
|
648 | (1) |
|
|
|
648 | (2) |
|
|
|
650 | (1) |
|
15.7.2 Corrugations and shoving |
|
|
651 | (1) |
|
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
15.7.5 Utility cut depressions |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
15.8 Disintegration of flexible pavements |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
15.9 Loss of surface skid resistance |
|
|
654 | (2) |
|
15.9.1 Polished aggregates |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
15.9.2 Bleeding or flushing |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
15.10 Typical distresses in rigid pavements |
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
15.11 Cracking of rigid pavements |
|
|
656 | (5) |
|
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
15.11.3 Joint cracking and extrusion of joint seal |
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
15.11.5 Multiple cracking |
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
15.11.6 Cracking of fresh and hardened concrete |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
15.11.7 Cracking of hardened concrete caused by other factors |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
15.12 Surface deformation in rigid pavements |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
15.13 Disintegration of rigid pavements |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
15.14 Loss of surface skid resistance |
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
|
|
664 | (24) |
|
15.15.1 Types of surface dressing |
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
15.15.1.1 Single surface dressing |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
15.15.1.2 Racked-in surface dressing |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
15.15.1.3 Double dressing |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
15.15.1.4 Inverted double dressing |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
15.15.1.5 Sandwich surface dressing |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
15.15.2 UK surface dressing design methodology (RN 39) |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
15.15.2.1 Surface temperature category |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
15.15.2.3 Traffic category and traffic speed |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
15.15.2.5 Aggregate properties |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
15.15.2.6 Selection of type of surface dressing |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
15.15.2.7 Type and quantity of bituminous binder |
|
|
669 | (4) |
|
15.15.2.8 Quantity of chippings for surface dressing |
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
15.15.3 Austroads surface dressing design methodology |
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
15.15.3.1 Single surface dressing (single seal) |
|
|
674 | (5) |
|
15.15.3.2 Double surface dressing (double seal) |
|
|
679 | (4) |
|
15.15.4 AASHTO chip seal design |
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
15.15.5 Asphalt institute surface dressing (chip seal) design |
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
15.15.6 Equipment and construction sequence of surface dressing |
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
15.15.7 Adhesivity tests and quality control tests for surface dressing |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
15.15.8 Type of failures of surface dressing |
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
15.15.8.1 Loss of cover aggregates |
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
15.16 Pavement strengthening |
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
15.17 Asphalt overlay design methods over flexible pavements |
|
|
688 | (6) |
|
15.17.1 Asphalt institute deflection method |
|
|
688 | (2) |
|
15.17.2 UK highways agency deflection method |
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
15.17.3 Asphalt institute effective depth method |
|
|
691 | (3) |
|
15.18 Asphalt overlay over rigid pavement |
|
|
694 | (6) |
|
15.18.1 Asphalt institute effective thickness method for asphalt overlay over rigid pavement |
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
15.18.2 Asphalt institute deflection procedure for asphalt overlay over rigid pavements |
|
|
698 | (1) |
|
15.18.3 British practice regarding overlays on rigid pavements |
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
15.19 Concrete overlay over rigid or flexible pavement |
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
15.20 AASHTO overlay design method |
|
|
701 | (8) |
|
15.20.1 According to the AASHTO guide of pavement structures |
|
|
701 | (1) |
|
15.20.2 According to the AASHTO mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide |
|
|
702 | (4) |
|
|
|
706 | (3) |
|
16 Pavement evaluation and measurement of functional and structural Characteristics |
|
|
709 | (76) |
|
|
|
709 | (1) |
|
16.2 Functional evaluation by visual condition survey |
|
|
709 | (4) |
|
16.2.1 Present serviceability ratio and present serviceability index concept |
|
|
711 | (1) |
|
16.2.2 Structural adequacy evaluation by visual distress survey by MEPDG |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
16.3 Functional evaluation by devices measuring surface characteristics |
|
|
713 | (43) |
|
16.3.1 Pavement surface characteristics |
|
|
713 | (2) |
|
16.3.2 Surface skid resistance |
|
|
715 | (3) |
|
16.3.3 Measurement of surface skid resistance |
|
|
718 | (1) |
|
16.3.4 Mobile devices measuring skid resistance |
|
|
719 | (2) |
|
|
|
721 | (1) |
|
|
|
722 | (1) |
|
16.3.4.3 BV-11 skiddometer and Saab friction tester |
|
|
723 | (1) |
|
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
16.3.4.7 ASTM locked wheel skid tester |
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
16.3.4.8 Continuous reading, fixed slip skid testers |
|
|
727 | (1) |
|
16.3.5 Portable devices measuring skid resistance |
|
|
728 | (1) |
|
16.3.5.1 British pendulum |
|
|
728 | (1) |
|
16.3.5.2 Other portable devices |
|
|
729 | (1) |
|
16.3.6 Skid resistance index |
|
|
730 | (1) |
|
16.3.7 International friction index |
|
|
731 | (1) |
|
16.3.8 Limit skid resistance values |
|
|
731 | (2) |
|
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
16.3.9.1 Measurement of texture depth by volumetric technique |
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
16.3.9.2 Measurement of texture profile using laser sensors |
|
|
734 | (2) |
|
16.3.10 Unevenness and mega-texture of pavement surface |
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
16.3.11 Surface irregularities measured by static device |
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
16.3.12 Profile-measuring devices |
|
|
737 | (1) |
|
16.3.12.1 True profile-measuring devices |
|
|
738 | (2) |
|
16.3.12.2 Moving reference datum level devices -- rolling devices |
|
|
740 | (1) |
|
16.3.12.3 Relative displacement or response-type devices |
|
|
741 | (3) |
|
16.3.12.4 Dynamic inertial profilometers |
|
|
744 | (4) |
|
16.3.13 3D laser imaging profilers |
|
|
748 | (1) |
|
16.3.14 Highways agency road research information system (HARRIS-2) |
|
|
749 | (2) |
|
16.3.15 Roughness indices |
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
16.3.15.1 International roughness index |
|
|
752 | (2) |
|
16.3.15.2 Prediction of evenness in terms of IRI |
|
|
754 | (1) |
|
16.3.16 TRACS vehicle for pavement surface condition evaluation |
|
|
754 | (2) |
|
16.4 Structural evaluation of pavements |
|
|
756 | (29) |
|
16.4.1 Static deflection measuring devices |
|
|
757 | (1) |
|
|
|
757 | (5) |
|
16.4.1.2 Dynaflect and road rater |
|
|
762 | (1) |
|
16.4.1.3 FWDs -- impulse devices |
|
|
763 | (4) |
|
16.4.2 Semi-static deflection measuring devices |
|
|
767 | (1) |
|
16.4.2.1 LaCroix deflectograph |
|
|
767 | (2) |
|
|
|
769 | (1) |
|
16.4.3 Moving deflection measuring devices |
|
|
770 | (1) |
|
16.4.3.1 Rolling dynamic deflectometer |
|
|
770 | (1) |
|
16.4.3.2 Airfield rolling weight deflectometer |
|
|
770 | (1) |
|
16.4.3.3 Rolling wheel deflectometer |
|
|
771 | (1) |
|
16.4.3.4 Traffic speed deflectometer |
|
|
772 | (1) |
|
16.4.4 Image deflection measuring technique |
|
|
773 | (1) |
|
|
|
773 | (3) |
|
|
|
776 | (9) |
|
|
|
785 | (14) |
|
|
|
785 | (1) |
|
17.2 Terms -- definitions |
|
|
785 | (1) |
|
17.3 Purpose of pavement management |
|
|
786 | (1) |
|
17.3.1 Financial benefits |
|
|
786 | (1) |
|
17.3.2 Technical benefits |
|
|
787 | (1) |
|
17.3.3 Organisational benefits |
|
|
787 | (1) |
|
17.4 Levels of pavement management analysis |
|
|
787 | (3) |
|
17.4.1 Pavement management at the project level |
|
|
787 | (1) |
|
17.4.2 Pavement management at the network level |
|
|
788 | (1) |
|
17.4.3 Pavement management at the strategic level |
|
|
789 | (1) |
|
17.5 Pavement management components |
|
|
790 | (6) |
|
17.5.1 Pavement inventory |
|
|
791 | (1) |
|
17.5.2 Pavement condition information |
|
|
791 | (1) |
|
|
|
792 | (1) |
|
17.5.4 History of post works |
|
|
792 | (1) |
|
|
|
792 | (1) |
|
|
|
793 | (1) |
|
17.5.6.1 Pavement performance models |
|
|
793 | (2) |
|
|
|
795 | (1) |
|
|
|
796 | (1) |
|
17.5.6.4 Cost information |
|
|
796 | (1) |
|
|
|
796 | (1) |
|
17.5.8 Implementation of improvement program |
|
|
796 | (1) |
|
17.6 Software for pavement management |
|
|
796 | (3) |
|
|
|
797 | (2) |
|
|
|
799 | (26) |
|
|
|
799 | (1) |
|
18.2 What pavement recycling is offering |
|
|
800 | (2) |
|
18.2.1 Conservation of natural resources and bitumen saving |
|
|
800 | (1) |
|
|
|
801 | (1) |
|
18.2.3 Conservation of environment |
|
|
801 | (1) |
|
18.2.4 Reduction of construction cost |
|
|
802 | (1) |
|
18.3 Pavement recycling methods |
|
|
802 | (3) |
|
18.4 Cold milling (planning) |
|
|
805 | (1) |
|
|
|
805 | (1) |
|
|
|
806 | (3) |
|
18.5.1 Hot in situ recycling |
|
|
806 | (1) |
|
|
|
806 | (1) |
|
|
|
807 | (1) |
|
|
|
808 | (1) |
|
18.5.2 Hot recycling in a central plant |
|
|
809 | (1) |
|
|
|
809 | (4) |
|
18.6.1 In situ full-depth cold recycling |
|
|
810 | (1) |
|
18.6.2 In situ partial-depth cold recycling |
|
|
811 | (1) |
|
18.6.3 In-central plant cold recycling |
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
|
|
813 | (3) |
|
|
|
813 | (1) |
|
|
|
813 | (2) |
|
18.7.3 Aggregate grading and binder content |
|
|
815 | (1) |
|
18.7.4 Other geometrical and physical tests on reclaimed aggregates |
|
|
816 | (1) |
|
|
|
816 | (1) |
|
|
|
816 | (1) |
|
18.9 Hot recycling mix design |
|
|
816 | (3) |
|
18.10 Cold recycling mix design |
|
|
819 | (1) |
|
18.11 Pavement design using recycled asphalt |
|
|
820 | (1) |
|
18.12 Recycling of rigid pavements |
|
|
820 | (5) |
|
18.12.1 Properties of reclaimed aggregate from rigid pavements |
|
|
821 | (1) |
|
|
|
821 | (4) |
| Index |
|
825 | |