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1 Understanding the Universe: Cosmology, Astrophysics, Particles, and Their Interactions |
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1 | (26) |
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1.1 Particle and Astroparticle Physics |
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1 | (2) |
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3 | (5) |
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1.3 The Particles of Everyday Life |
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8 | (1) |
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1.4 The Modern View of Interactions: Quantum Fields and Feynman Diagrams |
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9 | (1) |
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1.5 A Quick Look at the Universe |
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10 | (9) |
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19 | (4) |
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1.7 Multimessenger Astrophysics |
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23 | (4) |
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2 Basics of Particle Physics |
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27 | (56) |
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27 | (1) |
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2.2 The Rutherford Experiment |
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28 | (2) |
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2.3 Inside the Nuclei: β Decay and the Neutrino |
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30 | (2) |
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2.4 A Look into the Quantum World: Schrodinger's Equation |
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32 | (7) |
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2.4.1 Properties of Schrodinger's Equation and of its Solutions |
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33 | (5) |
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2.4.2 Uncertainty and the Scale of Measurements |
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38 | (1) |
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2.5 The Description of Scattering: Cross Section and Interaction Length |
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39 | (5) |
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2.5.1 Total Cross Section |
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39 | (2) |
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2.5.2 Differential Cross Sections |
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41 | (1) |
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2.5.3 Cross Sections at Colliders |
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41 | (1) |
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2.5.4 Partial Cross Sections |
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42 | (1) |
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43 | (1) |
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2.6 Description of Decay: Width and Lifetime |
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44 | (2) |
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2.7 Fermi Golden Rule and Rutherford Scattering |
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46 | (4) |
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2.7.1 Transition Amplitude |
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47 | (2) |
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49 | (1) |
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49 | (1) |
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2.7.4 Rutherford Cross Section |
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50 | (1) |
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2.8 Particle Scattering in Static Fields |
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50 | (3) |
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2.8.1 Extended Charge Distributions (Nonrelativistic) |
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50 | (1) |
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2.8.2 Finite Range Interactions |
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51 | (1) |
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2.8.3 Electron Scattering |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (21) |
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2.9.1 Lorentz Transformations |
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55 | (4) |
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2.9.2 Space--Time Interval |
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59 | (1) |
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2.9.3 Velocity Four-Vector |
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60 | (1) |
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2.9.4 Energy and Momentum |
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61 | (3) |
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2.9.5 Examples of Relativistic Dynamics |
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64 | (1) |
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2.9.6 Mandelstam Variables |
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65 | (2) |
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2.9.7 Lorentz Invariant Fermi Rule |
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67 | (2) |
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2.9.8 The Electromagnetic Tensor and the Covariant Formulation of Electromagnetism |
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69 | (5) |
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74 | (9) |
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3 Cosmic Rays and the Development of Particle Physics |
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83 | (26) |
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3.1 The Puzzle of Atmospheric Ionization and the Discovery of Cosmic Rays |
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84 | (6) |
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3.1.1 Underwater Experiments and Experiments Carried Out at Altitude |
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86 | (4) |
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3.1.2 The Nature of Cosmic Rays |
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90 | (1) |
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3.2 Cosmic Rays and the Beginning of Particle Physics |
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90 | (13) |
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3.2.1 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Antimatter: From the Schrodinger Equation to the Klein--Gordon and Dirac Equations |
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91 | (4) |
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3.2.2 The Discovery of Antimatter |
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95 | (2) |
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3.2.3 Cosmic Rays and the Progress of Particle Physics |
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97 | (1) |
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3.2.4 The μ Lepton and the n Mesons |
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98 | (3) |
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101 | (1) |
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3.2.6 Mountain-Top Laboratories |
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102 | (1) |
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3.3 Particle Hunters Become Farmers |
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103 | (2) |
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105 | (4) |
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109 | (98) |
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4.1 Interaction of Particles with Matter |
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109 | (20) |
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4.1.1 Charged Particle Interactions |
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109 | (8) |
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117 | (1) |
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4.1.3 Multiple Scattering |
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117 | (2) |
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4.1.4 Photon Interactions |
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119 | (4) |
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4.1.5 Nuclear (Hadronic) Interactions |
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123 | (1) |
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4.1.6 Interaction of Neutrinos |
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123 | (1) |
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4.1.7 Electromagnetic Showers |
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124 | (4) |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (16) |
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130 | (8) |
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138 | (2) |
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4.2.3 Cherenkov Detectors |
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140 | (2) |
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4.2.4 Transition Radiation Detectors |
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142 | (1) |
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142 | (3) |
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4.3 High-Energy Particles |
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145 | (5) |
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4.3.1 Artificial Accelerators |
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146 | (3) |
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4.3.2 Cosmic Rays as Very-High-Energy Beams |
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149 | (1) |
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4.4 Detector Systems and Experiments at Accelerators |
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150 | (13) |
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4.4.1 Examples of Detectors for Fixed-Target Experiments |
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151 | (3) |
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4.4.2 Examples of Detectors for Colliders |
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154 | (9) |
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163 | (34) |
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4.5.1 Interaction of Cosmic Rays with the Atmosphere: Extensive Air Showers |
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164 | (3) |
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4.5.2 Detectors of Charged Cosmic Rays |
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167 | (8) |
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4.5.3 Detection of Hard Photons |
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175 | (17) |
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192 | (5) |
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4.6 Detection of Gravitational Waves |
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197 | (10) |
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5 Particles and Symmetries |
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207 | (58) |
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207 | (2) |
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5.2 Symmetries and Conservation Laws: The Noether Theorem |
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209 | (2) |
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5.3 Symmetries and Groups |
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211 | (21) |
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5.3.1 A Quantum Mechanical View of the Noether's Theorem |
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212 | (2) |
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5.3.2 Some Fundamental Symmetries in Quantum Mechanics |
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214 | (3) |
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5.3.3 Unitary Groups and Special Unitary Groups |
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217 | (1) |
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217 | (3) |
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220 | (2) |
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5.3.6 Discrete Symmetries: Parity, Charge Conjugation, and Time Reversal |
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222 | (3) |
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225 | (4) |
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229 | (3) |
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232 | (9) |
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232 | (2) |
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234 | (2) |
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5.4.3 Excited States (Nonzero Angular Momenta Between Quarks) |
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236 | (1) |
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236 | (4) |
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240 | (1) |
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241 | (1) |
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241 | (1) |
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241 | (14) |
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242 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Inelastic Scattering Kinematics |
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243 | (2) |
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5.5.3 Deep Inelastic Scattering |
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245 | (3) |
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5.5.4 The Quark--Parton Model |
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248 | (5) |
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5.5.5 The Number of Quark Colors |
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253 | (2) |
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255 | (3) |
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5.6.1 The Discovery of the τ Lepton |
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256 | (1) |
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257 | (1) |
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5.7 The Particle Data Group and the Particle Data Book |
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258 | (7) |
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5.7.1 PDG: Estimates of Physical Quantities |
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259 | (1) |
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5.7.2 Averaging Procedures by the PDG |
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259 | (6) |
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6 Interactions and Field Theories |
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265 | (128) |
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6.1 The Lagrangian Representation of a Dynamical System |
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267 | (3) |
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6.1.1 The Lagrangian and the Noether Theorem |
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268 | (1) |
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6.1.2 Lagrangians and Fields; Lagrangian Density |
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269 | (1) |
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6.1.3 Lagrangian Density and Mass |
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270 | (1) |
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6.2 Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) |
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270 | (45) |
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270 | (3) |
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273 | (3) |
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276 | (2) |
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6.2.4 Dirac Equation Revisited |
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278 | (12) |
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6.2.5 Klein--Gordon Equation Revisited |
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290 | (2) |
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6.2.6 The Lagrangian for a Charged Fermion in an Electromagnetic Field: Electromagnetism as a Field Theory |
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292 | (2) |
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6.2.7 An Introduction to Feynman Diagrams: Electromagnetic Interactions Between Charged Spinless Particles |
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294 | (6) |
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6.2.8 Electron-Muon Elastic Scattering (e-μ-→ e-μ-) |
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300 | (4) |
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6.2.9 Feynman Diagram Rules for QED |
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304 | (2) |
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6.2.10 Muon Pair Production from e-e+ Annihilation (e-e+ → μ-μ+) |
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306 | (2) |
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6.2.11 Bhabha Scattering e-e+ → e-e+ |
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308 | (3) |
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6.2.12 Renormalization and Vacuum Polarization |
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311 | (4) |
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315 | (38) |
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6.3.1 The Fermi Model of Weak Interactions |
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315 | (3) |
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318 | (2) |
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320 | (2) |
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6.3.4 "Left" and "Right" Chiral Particle States |
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322 | (3) |
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6.3.5 Intermediate Vector Bosons |
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325 | (8) |
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6.3.6 The Cabibbo Angle and the GIM Mechanism |
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333 | (4) |
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6.3.7 Extension to Three Quark Families: The CKM Matrix |
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337 | (3) |
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340 | (11) |
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6.3.9 Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry |
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351 | (2) |
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6.4 Strong Interactions and QCD |
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353 | (40) |
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6.4.1 Yang-Mills Theories |
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354 | (2) |
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6.4.2 The Lagrangian of QCD |
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356 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Vertices in QCD; Color Factors |
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357 | (2) |
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6.4.4 The Strong Coupling |
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359 | (2) |
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6.4.5 Asymptotic Freedom and Confinement |
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361 | (1) |
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6.4.6 Hadronization; Final States from Hadronic Interactions |
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362 | (9) |
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6.4.7 Hadronic Cross Section |
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371 | (22) |
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7 The Higgs Mechanism and the Standard Model of Particle Physics |
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393 | (62) |
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7.1 The Higgs Mechanism and the Origin of Mass |
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395 | (7) |
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7.1.1 Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking |
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396 | (1) |
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7.1.2 An Example from Classical Mechanics |
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396 | (1) |
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7.1.3 Application to Field Theory: Massless Fields Acquire Mass |
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397 | (3) |
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7.1.4 From SSB to the Higgs Mechanism: Gauge Symmetries and the Mass of Gauge Bosons |
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400 | (2) |
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7.2 Electroweak Unification |
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402 | (13) |
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7.2.1 The Formalism of the Electroweak Theory |
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403 | (5) |
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7.2.2 The Higgs Mechanism in the Electroweak Theory and the Mass of the Electroweak Bosons |
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408 | (3) |
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411 | (1) |
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7.2.4 Interactions Between Fermions and Gauge Bosons |
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411 | (3) |
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7.2.5 Self-interactions of Gauge Bosons |
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414 | (1) |
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7.2.6 Feynman Diagram Rules for the Electroweak Interaction |
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414 | (1) |
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7.3 The Lagrangian of the Standard Model |
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415 | (4) |
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7.3.1 The Higgs Particle in the Standard Model |
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415 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Standard Model Parameters |
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416 | (3) |
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7.3.3 Accidental Symmetries |
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419 | (1) |
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7.4 Observables in the Standard Model |
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419 | (3) |
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7.5 Experimental Tests of the Standard Model at Accelerators |
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422 | (21) |
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7.5.1 Data Versus Experiments: LEP (and the Tevatron) |
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423 | (13) |
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7.5.2 LHC and the Discovery of the Higgs Boson |
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436 | (7) |
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7.6 Beyond the Minimal SM of Particle Physics; Unification of Forces |
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443 | (12) |
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7.6.1 Grand Unified Theories |
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444 | (3) |
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447 | (3) |
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7.6.3 Strings and Extra Dimensions; Superstrings |
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450 | (1) |
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451 | (4) |
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8 The Standard Model of Cosmology and the Dark Universe |
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455 | (88) |
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8.1 Experimental Cosmology |
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456 | (30) |
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8.1.1 The Universe Is Expanding |
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456 | (5) |
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8.1.2 Expansion Is Accelerating |
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461 | (2) |
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8.1.3 Cosmic Microwave Background |
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463 | (9) |
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8.1.4 Primordial Nucleosynthesis |
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472 | (5) |
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8.1.5 Astrophysical Evidence for Dark Matter |
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477 | (8) |
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8.1.6 Age of the Universe: A First Estimate |
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485 | (1) |
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486 | (24) |
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8.2.1 Equivalence Principle |
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487 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Light and Time in a Gravitational Field |
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487 | (3) |
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8.2.3 Flat and Curved Spaces |
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490 | (4) |
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8.2.4 Einstein's Equations |
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494 | (2) |
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8.2.5 The Friedmann---Lemaitre---Robertson---Walker Model (Friedmann Equations) |
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496 | (4) |
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8.2.6 Critical Density of the Universe; Normalized Densities |
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500 | (3) |
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8.2.7 Age of the Universe from the Friedmann Equations and Evolution Scenarios |
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503 | (2) |
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505 | (3) |
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8.2.9 Gravitational Waves |
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508 | (2) |
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8.3 Past, Present, and Future of the Universe |
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510 | (10) |
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510 | (5) |
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8.3.2 Inflation and Large-Scale Structures |
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515 | (5) |
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520 | (5) |
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8.4.1 Dark Matter Decoupling and the "WIMP Miracle" |
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522 | (3) |
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8.5 What Is Dark Matter Made of, and How Can It Be Found? |
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525 | (18) |
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8.5.1 WISPs: Neutrinos, Axions and ALPs |
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527 | (2) |
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529 | (11) |
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8.5.3 Other Nonbaryonic Candidates |
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540 | (3) |
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9 The Properties of Neutrinos |
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543 | (32) |
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9.1 Sources and Detectors; Evidence of the Transmutation of the Neutrino Flavor |
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544 | (19) |
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9.1.1 Solar Neutrinos, and the Solar Neutrino Problem |
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544 | (5) |
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9.1.2 Neutrino Oscillation in a Two-Flavor System |
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549 | (4) |
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9.1.3 Long-Baseline Reactor Experiments |
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553 | (1) |
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9.1.4 Estimation of ve → vμ Oscillation Parameters |
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554 | (1) |
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9.1.5 Atmospheric Neutrinos and the vμ → vτ Oscillation |
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555 | (2) |
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9.1.6 Phenomenology of Neutrino Oscillations: Extension to Three Families |
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557 | (2) |
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9.1.7 Short-Baseline Reactor Experiments, and the Determination of θ13 |
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559 | (1) |
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9.1.8 Accelerator Neutrino Beams |
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560 | (2) |
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9.1.9 Explicit Appearance Experiment |
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562 | (1) |
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9.1.10 A Gift from Nature: Geo-Neutrinos |
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563 | (1) |
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9.2 Neutrino Oscillation Parameters |
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563 | (2) |
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565 | (10) |
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9.3.1 The Constraints from Cosmological and Astrophysical Data |
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566 | (1) |
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9.3.2 Direct Measurements of the Electron Neutrino Mass: Beta Decays |
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567 | (1) |
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9.3.3 Direct Measurements of the Muon- and Tau-Neutrino Masses |
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568 | (1) |
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9.3.4 Incorporating Neutrino Masses in the Theory |
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569 | (1) |
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9.3.5 Majorana Neutrinos and the Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay |
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570 | (2) |
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9.3.6 Present Mass Limits and Prospects |
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572 | (3) |
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10 Messengers from the High-Energy Universe |
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575 | (108) |
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10.1 How Are High-Energy Cosmic Rays Produced? |
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580 | (14) |
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10.1.1 Acceleration of Charged Cosmic Rays: The Fermi Mechanism |
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580 | (6) |
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10.1.2 Production of High-Energy Gamma Rays and Neutrinos |
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586 | (7) |
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10.1.3 Top-Down Mechanisms; Possible Origin from Dark Matter Particles |
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593 | (1) |
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10.2 Possible Acceleration Sites and Sources |
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594 | (23) |
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10.2.1 Stellar Endproducts as Acceleration Sites |
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595 | (8) |
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10.2.2 Other Galactic Sources |
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603 | (1) |
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10.2.3 Extragalactic Acceleration Sites: Active Galactic Nuclei and Other Galaxies |
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603 | (5) |
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10.2.4 Extragalactic Acceleration Sites: Gamma Ray Bursts |
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608 | (2) |
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10.2.5 Gamma Rays and the Origin of Cosmic Rays: The Roles of SNRs and AGN |
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610 | (4) |
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10.2.6 Sources of Neutrinos |
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614 | (2) |
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10.2.7 Sources of Gravitational Waves |
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616 | (1) |
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617 | (14) |
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10.3.1 Magnetic Fields in the Universe |
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618 | (1) |
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619 | (1) |
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10.3.3 Propagation of Charged Cosmic Rays |
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619 | (7) |
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10.3.4 Propagation of Photons |
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626 | (4) |
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10.3.5 Propagation of Neutrinos |
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630 | (1) |
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10.3.6 Propagation of Gravitational Waves |
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630 | (1) |
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10.4 More Experimental Results |
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631 | (40) |
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10.4.1 Charged Cosmic Rays: Composition, Extreme Energies, Correlation with Sources |
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631 | (14) |
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10.4.2 Photons: Different Source Types, Transients, Fundamental Physics |
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645 | (17) |
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10.4.3 Astrophysical Neutrinos |
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662 | (4) |
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10.4.4 Gravitational Radiation |
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666 | (5) |
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10.5 Future Experiments and Open Questions |
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671 | (12) |
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10.5.1 Charged Cosmic Rays |
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671 | (2) |
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673 | (1) |
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674 | (1) |
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10.5.4 High Energy Neutrinos |
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674 | (2) |
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10.5.5 Gravitational Waves |
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676 | (1) |
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10.5.6 Multi-messenger Astrophysics |
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677 | (6) |
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11 Astrobiology and the Relation of Fundamental Physics to Life |
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683 | (28) |
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684 | (8) |
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11.1.1 Schrodinger's Definition of Life |
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685 | (1) |
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11.1.2 The Recipe of Life |
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686 | (4) |
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11.1.3 Life in Extreme Environments |
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690 | (1) |
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691 | (1) |
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11.2 Life in the Solar System, Outside Earth |
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692 | (5) |
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11.2.1 Planets of the Solar System |
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693 | (2) |
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11.2.2 Satellites of Giant Planets |
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695 | (2) |
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11.3 Life Outside the Solar System, and the Search for Alien Civilizations |
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697 | (12) |
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11.3.1 The "Drake Equation" |
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697 | (2) |
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11.3.2 The Search for Extrasolar Habitable Planets |
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699 | (2) |
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701 | (1) |
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11.3.4 Searching for Biosignatures |
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702 | (1) |
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11.3.5 Looking for Technological Civilizations: Listening to Messages from Space |
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703 | (3) |
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11.3.6 Sending Messages to the Universe |
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706 | (3) |
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709 | (2) |
Appendix A Periodic Table of the Elements |
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711 | (2) |
Appendix B Properties of Materials |
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713 | (2) |
Appendix C Physical and Astrophysical Constants |
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715 | (2) |
Appendix D Particle Properties |
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717 | (6) |
Index |
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723 | |