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E-raamat: Materials for Biomedical Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications

Mohamed N. Rahaman, Roger F. Brown

Formaat: PDF+DRM
Ilmumisaeg: 03-Nov-2021
Kirjastus: Wiley-American Ceramic Society
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9781119551119

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Formaat: PDF+DRM
Ilmumisaeg: 03-Nov-2021
Kirjastus: Wiley-American Ceramic Society
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9781119551119

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"This textbook suitable for a one-semester (or two-quarter) course in biomaterials at the junior/senior undergraduate and introductory graduate levels. While intended primarily for students in biomedical engineering degree programs, this textbook providea concise yet comprehensive resource for an interdisciplinary audience composed of medical and dental students, researchers in the biomedical industry, and students with science and engineering backgrounds who have an interest in biomaterials. The focus of the book centers on the fundamentals to aid students to understand the materials science of biomaterials and their interaction with cells and tissues. However, it also describes conventional and emerging applications to show how these fundamentals are applied. Each chapter is replete with data in the form of tables and illustrations, and concludes with homework, review and examination problems, and a list of references for further reading. Beginning with an introductory chapter that covers general aspects related to the history, properties and applications of biomaterials. For academic adopters a solutions manual and other materials for their courses"--

MATERIALS FOR BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

A comprehensive yet accessible introductory textbook designed for one-semester courses in biomaterials

Biomaterials are used throughout the biomedical industry in a range of applications, from cardiovascular devices and medical and dental implants to regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and cancer treatment. Materials for Biomedical Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications provides an up-to-date introduction to biomaterials, their interaction with cells and tissues, and their use in both conventional and emerging areas of biomedicine.

Requiring no previous background in the subject, this student-friendly textbook covers the basic concepts and principles of materials science, the classes of materials used as biomaterials, the degradation of biomaterials in the biological environment, biocompatibility phenomena, and the major applications of biomaterials in medicine and dentistry. Throughout the text, easy-to-digest chapters address key topics such as the atomic structure, bonding, and properties of biomaterials, natural and synthetic polymers, immune responses to biomaterials, implant-associated infections, biomaterials in hard and soft tissue repair, tissue engineering and drug delivery, and more.

Offers accessible chapters with clear explanatory text, tables and figures, and high-quality illustrations
Describes how the fundamentals of biomaterials are applied in a variety of biomedical applications
Features a thorough overview of the history, properties, and applications of biomaterials
Includes numerous homework, review, and examination problems, full references, and further reading suggestions

Materials for Biomedical Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications is an excellent textbook for advanced undergraduate and graduate students in biomedical materials science courses, and a valuable resource for medical and dental students as well as students with science and engineering backgrounds with interest in biomaterials.

Preface

xix

About the Companion Website

xxi

Part I General Introduction

(20)

1 BiomateriaLs -- An Introductory Overview

(18)

1.1 Introduction

(1)

1.2 Definition and Meaning of Common Terms

(5)

1.3 Biomaterials Design and Selection

(3)

1.3.1 Evolving Trend in Biomaterials Design

(1)

1.3.2 Factors in Biomaterials Design and Selection

(2)

1.4 Properties of Materials

(2)

1.4.1 Intrinsic Properties of Metals

(1)

1.4.2 Intrinsic Properties of Ceramics

(1)

1.4.3 Intrinsic Properties of Polymers

(1)

1.4.4 Properties of Composites

(1)

1.4.5 Representation of Properties

(1)

1.5 Case Study in Materials Design and Selection: The Hip Implant

(4)

1.6 Brief History of the Evolution of Biomaterials

(2)

1.7 Biomaterials -- An Interdisciplinary Field

(1)

1.8 Concluding Remarks

(2)

Part II Materials Science of Biomaterials

(98)

2 Atomic Structure and Bonding

(24)

2.1 Introduction

(1)

2.2 Interatomic Forces and Bonding Energies

(3)

2.3 Types of Bonds between Atoms and Molecules

(1)

2.4 Primary Bonds

(7)

2.4.1 Ionic Bonding

(1)

2.4.2 Covalent Bonding

(3)

2.4.3 Metallic Bonding

(1)

2.5 Secondary Bonds

(2)

2.5.1 Van der Waals Bonding

(1)

2.5.2 Hydrogen Bonding

(1)

2.6 Atomic Bonding and Structure in Proteins

(8)

2.6.1 Primary Structure

(1)

2.6.2 Secondary Structure

(1)

2.6.3 Tertiary Structure

(5)

2.6.4 Quaternary Structure

(1)

2.1 Concluding Remarks

(3)

3 Structure of Solids

(22)

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 Packing of Atoms in Crystals

(4)

3.2.1 Unit Cells and Crystal Systems

(2)

3.3 Structure of Solids Used as Biomaterials

(7)

3.3.1 Crystal Structure of Metals

(1)

3.3.2 Crystal Structure of Ceramics

(2)

3.3.3 Structure of Inorganic Glasses

(1)

3.3.4 Structure of Carbon Materials

(2)

3.3.5 Structure of Polymers

(1)

3.4 Defects in Crystalline Solids

(4)

3.4.1 Point Defects

(1)

3.4.2 Line Defects: Dislocations

(3)

3.4.3 Planar Defects: Surfaces and Grain Boundaries

(1)

3.5 Microstructure of Biomaterials

(3)

3.5.1 Microstructure of Dense Biomaterials

(1)

3.5.2 Microstructure of Porous Biomaterials

(1)

3.6 Special Topic: Lattice Planes and Directions

(2)

3.7 Concluding Remarks

(2)

4 Bulk Properties of Materials

(30)

4.1 Introduction

(1)

4.2 Mechanical Properties of Materials

(15)

4.2.1 Mechanical Stress and Strain

(2)

4.2.2 Elastic Modulus

(2)

4.2.3 Mechanical Response of Materials

(4)

4.2.4 Stress-Strain Behavior of Metals, Ceramics, and Polymers

(1)

4.2.5 Fracture of Materials

(3)

4.2.6 Toughness and Fracture Toughness

(1)

4.2.7 Fatigue

(1)

4.2.8 Hardness

(1)

4.3 Effect of Microstructure on Mechanical Properties

(1)

4.3.1 Effect of Porosity

(1)

4.3.2 Effect of Grain Size

(1)

4.4 Designing with Ductile and Brittle Materials

(2)

4.4.1 Designing with Metals

(1)

4.4.2 Designing with Ceramics

(2)

4.4.3 Designing with Polymers

(1)

4.5 Electrical Properties

(1)

4.5.1 Electrical Conductivity of Materials

(1)

4.5.2 Electrical Conductivity of Conducting Polymers

(1)

4.6 Magnetic Properties

(4)

4.6.1 Origins of Magnetic Response in Materials

(1)

4.6.2 Meaning and Definition of Relevant Magnetic Properties

(1)

4.6.3 Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic Materials

(1)

4.6.4 Ferromagnetic Materials

(1)

4.6.5 Ferrimagnetic Materials

(1)

4.6.6 Magnetization Curves and Hysteresis

(1)

4.6.7 Hyperthermia Treatment of Tumors using Magnetic Nanoparticles

(1)

4.7 Thermal Properties

(2)

4.7.1 Thermal Conductivity

(1)

4.7.2 Thermal Expansion Coefficient

(1)

4.8 Optical Properties

(1)

4.9 Concluding Remarks

(4)

5 Surface Properties of Materials

(20)

5.1 Introduction

(1)

5.2 Surface Energy

100

(4)

5.2.1 Determination of Surface Energy of Materials

101

(1)

5.2.2 Measurement of Contact Angle

102

(2)

5.2.3 Effect of Surface Energy

104

(1)

5.3 Surface Chemistry

104

(4)

5.3.1 Characterization of Surface Chemistry

105

(3)

5.4 Surface Charge

108

(2)

5.4.1 Surface Charging Mechanisms

108

(1)

5.4.2 Measurement of Surface Charge and Potential

109

(1)

5.4.3 Effect of Surface Charge

110

(1)

5.5 Surface Topography

110

(6)

5.5.1 Surface Roughness Parameters

112

(1)

5.5.2 Characterization of Surface Topography

112

(13)

5.5.3 Effect of Surface Topography on Cell and Tissue Response

125

5.6 Concluding Remarks

116

(3)

Part III Classes of Materials Used as Biomaterials

119

(220)

6 Metallic Biomaterials

121

(32)

6.1 Introduction

121

(1)

6.2 Crystal Structure of Metals

121

(1)

6.3 Polymorphic Transformation

122

(4)

6.3.1 Formation of Nuclei of Critical Size

123

(1)

6.3.2 Rate of Phase Transformation

123

(1)

6.3.3 Diffusive Transformations

124

(1)

6.3.4 Displacive Transformations

125

(1)

6.3.5 Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) Diagrams

125

(1)

6.4 Alloys

126

(1)

6.5 Shape (Morphology) of Phases

126

(1)

6.6 Phase Diagrams

127

(2)

6.7 Production of Metals

129

(2)

6.7.1 Wrought Metal Products

129

(1)

6.7.2 Cast Metal Products

130

(1)

6.7.3 Alternative Production Methods

130

(1)

6.8 Mechanisms for Strengthening Metals

131

(2)

6.8.1 Solid Solution Hardening

131

(1)

6.8.2 Precipitation and Dispersion Hardening

131

(1)

6.8.3 Work Hardening

131

(1)

6.8.4 Grain Size Refinement

132

(1)

6.9 Metals Used as Biomaterials

133

(12)

6.9.1 Stainless Steels

133

(1)

6.9.2 Titanium and Titanium Alloys

134

(3)

6.9.3 Cobalt-Based Alloys

137

(4)

6.9.4 Nickel-Titanium Metals and Alloys

141

(2)

6.9.5 Tantalum

143

(1)

6.9.6 Zirconium Alloys

144

(1)

6.9.7 Noble Metals

144

(1)

6.10 Degradable Metals

145

(4)

6.10.1 Designing Degradable Metals

145

(1)

6.10.2 Degradable Magnesium Alloys

146

(3)

6.11 Concluding Remarks

149

(4)

7 Ceramic Biomaterials

153

(34)

7.1 Introduction

153

(1)

7.2 Design and Processing of Ceramics

154

(3)

7.2.1 Design Principles for Mechanically Reliable Ceramics

154

(1)

7.2.2 Principles of Processing Ceramics

155

(2)

7.3 Chemically Unreactive Ceramics

157

(5)

7.3.1 Alumina (Al2O3)

157

(1)

7.3.2 Zirconia (ZrO2)

158

(2)

7.3.3 Alumina-Zirconia (Al2O3-ZrO2) Composites

160

(1)

7.3.4 Silicon Nitride (Si3N4)

161

(1)

7.4 Calcium Phosphates

162

(5)

7.4.1 Solubility of Calcium Phosphates

163

(1)

7.4.2 Degradation of Calcium Phosphates

164

(1)

7.4.3 Hydroxyapatite

164

(1)

7.4.4 Beta-Tricalcium Phosphate (β-TCP)

165

(1)

7.4.5 Biphasic Calcium Phosphate (BCP)

165

(1)

7.4.6 Other Calcium Phosphates

166

(1)

7.4.7 Mechanical Properties of Calcium Phosphates

167

(1)

7.5 Calcium Phosphate Cement (CPC)

167

(3)

7.5.1 CPC Chemistry

168

(1)

7.5.2 CPC Setting (Hardening) Mechanism

168

(1)

7.5.3 Microstructure of CPCs

168

(1)

7.5.4 Properties of CPCs

169

(1)

7.6 Calcium Sulfate

170

(1)

7.7 Glasses

170

(2)

7.7.1 Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)

171

(1)

7.7.2 Glass Viscosity

171

(1)

7.7.3 Production of Glasses

172

(1)

7.8 Chemically Unreactive Glasses

172

(1)

7.9 Bioactive Glasses

173

(6)

7.9.1 Bioactive Glass Composition

173

(1)

7.9.2 Mechanism of Conversion to Hydroxyapatite

174

(1)

7.9.3 Reactivity of Bioactive Glasses

175

(1)

7.9.4 Mechanical Properties of Bioactive Glasses

176

(1)

7.9.5 Release of Ions from Bioactive Glasses

177

(1)

7.9.6 Applications of Bioactive Glasses

178

(1)

7.10 Glass-Ceramics

179

(4)

7.10.1 Production of Glass-Ceramics

179

(1)

7.10.2 Bioactive Glass-Ceramics

180

(1)

7.10.3 Chemically Unreactive Glass-Ceramics

181

(1)

7.10.4 Lithium Disilicate Glass-Ceramics

181

(2)

7.11 Concluding Remarks

183

(4)

8 Synthetic Polymers I: Nondegradable Polymers

187

(30)

8.1 Introduction

187

(1)

8.2 Polymer Science Fundamentals

188

(10)

8.2.1 Copolymers

188

(1)

8.2.2 Linear and Crosslinked Molecules

189

(1)

8.2.3 Molecular Symmetry and Stereoregularity

189

(1)

8.2.4 Molecular Weight

190

(2)

8.2.5 Molecular Conformation

192

(1)

8.2.6 Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)

193

(1)

8.2.7 Semicrystalline Polymers

194

(3)

8.2.8 Molecular Orientation in Amorphous and Semicrystalline Polymers

197

(1)

8.3 Production of Polymers

198

(1)

8.3.1 Polymer Synthesis

198

(1)

8.3.2 Production Methods

199

(1)

8.4 Mechanical Properties of Polymers

199

(2)

8.4.1 Effect of Temperature

199

(1)

8.4.2 Effect of Crystallinity

200

(1)

8.4.3 Effect of Molecular Weight

200

(1)

8.4.4 Effect of Molecular Orientation

200

(1)

8.5 Thermoplastic Polymers

201

(6)

8.5.1 Polyolefins

201

(2)

8.5.2 Fluorinated Hydrocarbon Polymers

203

(1)

8.5.3 Vinyl Polymers

204

(1)

8.5.4 Acrylic Polymers

204

(1)

8.5.5 Polyaryletherketones

205

(1)

8.5.6 Polycarbonate, Polyethersulfone, and Polysulfone

206

(1)

8.5.7 Polyesters

206

(1)

8.5.8 Polyamides

206

(1)

8.6 Elastomeric Polymers

207

(2)

8.6.1 Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)

208

(1)

8.7 Special Topic: Polyurethanes

209

(3)

8.7.1 Production of Polyurethanes

209

(1)

8.7.2 Structure---Property Relations in Polyurethanes

210

(1)

8.7.3 Chemical Stability of Polyurethanes in vivo

211

(1)

8.7.4 Biomedical Applications of Polyurethanes

212

(1)

8.8 Water-soluble Polymers

212

(1)

8.9 Concluding Remarks

213

(4)

9 Synthetic Polymers II: Degradable Polymers

217

(28)

9.1 Introduction

217

(1)

9.2 Degradation of Polymers

217

(1)

9.3 Erosion of Degradable Polymers

218

(1)

9.4 Characterization of Degradation and Erosion

219

(1)

9.5 Factors Controlling Polymer Degradation

219

(4)

9.5.1 Chemical Structure

219

(1)

9.5.2 pH

220

(1)

9.5.3 Copolymerization

221

(1)

9.5.4 Crystallinity

222

(1)

9.5.5 Molecular Weight

222

(1)

9.5.6 Water Uptake

223

(1)

9.6 Factors Controlling Polymer Erosion

223

(2)

9.6.1 Bulk Erosion

224

(1)

9.6.2 Surface Erosion

224

(1)

9.7 Design Criteria for Degradable Polymers

225

(1)

9.8 Types of Degradable Polymers Relevant to Biomaterials

226

(15)

9.8.1 Poly (α-hydroxy Esters)

226

(4)

9.8.2 Polycaprolactone

230

(1)

9.8.3 Polyanhydrides

231

(2)

9.8.4 Poly (Ortho Esters)

233

(1)

9.8.5 Polydioxanone

234

(1)

9.8.6 Polyhydroxyalkanoates

235

(1)

9.8.7 Poly (Propylene Fumarate)

236

(1)

9.8.8 Polyacetals and Polyketals

237

(1)

9.8.9 Poly (polyol sebacate)

238

(2)

9.8.10 Polycarbonates

240

(1)

9.9 Concluding Remarks

241

(4)

10 Natural Polymers

245

(34)

10.1 Introduction

245

(1)

10.2 General Properties and Characteristics of Natural Polymers

246

(1)

10.3 Protein-Based Natural Polymers

246

(16)

10.3.1 Collagen

247

(8)

10.3.2 Gelatin

255

(1)

10.3.3 Silk

256

(3)

10.3.4 Elastin

259

(1)

10.3.5 Fibrin

260

(1)

10.3.6 Laminin

261

(1)

10.4 Polysaccharide-Based Polymers

262

(13)

10.4.1 Hyaluronic Acid

263

(2)

10.4.2 Sulfated Polysaccharides

265

(2)

10.4.3 Alginates

267

(2)

10.4.4 Chitosan

269

(2)

10.4.5 Agarose

271

(1)

10.4.6 Cellulose

272

(2)

10.4.7 Bacterial (Microbial) Cellulose

274

(1)

10.5 Concluding Remarks

275

(4)

11 Hydrogels

279

(28)

11.1 Introduction

279

(1)

11.2 Characteristics of Hydrogels

279

(2)

11.3 Types of Hydrogels

281

(1)

11.4 Creation of Hydrogels

281

(3)

11.4.1 Chemical Hydrogels

281

(1)

11.4.2 Physical Hydrogels

282

(2)

11.5 Characterization of Sol to Gel Transition

284

(1)

11.6 Swelling Behavior of Hydrogels

285

(4)

11.6.1 Theory of Swelling

285

(3)

11.6.2 Determination of Swelling Parameters

288

(1)

11.7 Mechanical Properties of Hydrogels

289

(1)

11.8 Transport Properties of Hydrogels

289

(1)

11.9 Surface Properties of Hydrogels

290

(1)

11.10 Environmentally Responsive Hydrogels

291

(3)

11.10.1 pH Responsive Hydrogels

291

(2)

11.10.2 Temperature Responsive Hydrogels

293

(1)

11.11 Synthetic Hydrogels

294

(5)

11.11.1 Polyethylene Glycol and Polyethylene Oxide

294

(3)

11.11.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol

297

(1)

11.11.3 Polyhydroxyethyl Methacrylate

298

(1)

11.11.4 Polyacrylic Acid and Polymethacrylic Acid

298

(1)

11.11.5 Poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide)

298

(1)

11.12 Natural Hydrogels

299

(2)

11.13 Applications of Hydrogels

301

(2)

11.13.1 Drug Delivery

301

(1)

11.13.2 Cell Encapsulation and Immunoisolation

302

(1)

11.13.3 Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering

302

(1)

11.14 Concluding Remarks

303

(4)

12 Composite Biomaterials

307

(4)

12.1 Introduction

307

(1)

12.2 Types of Composites

307

(1)

12.3 Mechanical Properties of Composites

307

(4)

12.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Fiber Composites

308

(1)

12.3.2 Mechanical Properties of Particulate Composites

309

(2)

12 A Biomedical Applications of Composites

311

(4)

12.5 Concluding Remarks

313

(2)

13 Surface Modification and Biological Functionalization of Biomaterials

315

(24)

13.1 Introduction

315

(1)

13.2 Surface Modification

315

(1)

13.3 Surface Modification Methods

316

(1)

13.4 Plasma Processes

317

(2)

13.4.1 Plasma Treatment Principles

317

(1)

13.4.2 Advantages and Drawbacks of Plasma Treatment

318

(1)

13.4.3 Applications of Plasma Treatment

318

(1)

13.5 Chemical Vapor Deposition

319

(3)

13.5.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition of Inorganic Films

319

(1)

13.5.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition of Polymer Films

319

(3)

13.6 Physical Techniques for Surface Modification

322

(1)

13.7 Parylene Coating

322

(1)

13.8 Radiation Grafting

323

(1)

13.9 Chemical Reactions

323

(1)

13.10 Solution Processing of Coatings

324

(6)

13.10.1 Silanization

324

(1)

13.10.2 Langmuir--Blodgett Films

325

(3)

13.10.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers

328

(1)

13.10.4 Layer-by-Layer Deposition

329

(1)

13.11 Biological Functionalization of Biomaterials

330

(7)

13.11.1 Immobilization Methods

331

(1)

13.11.2 Physical Immobilization

331

(1)

13.11.3 Chemical Immobilization

332

(2)

13.11.4 Heparin Modification of Biomaterials

334

(3)

13.12 Concluding Remarks

337

(2)

Part IV Degradation of Biomaterials in the Physiological Environment

339

(34)

14 Degradation of Metallic and Ceramic Biomaterials

341

(14)

14.1 Introduction

341

(1)

14.2 Corrosion of Metals

342

(7)

14.2.1 Principles of Metal Corrosion

342

(3)

14.2.2 Rate of Corrosion

345

(1)

14.2.3 Pourbaix Diagrams

346

(1)

14.2.4 Types of Electrochemical Corrosion

347

(2)

14.3 Corrosion of Metal Implants in the Physiological Environment

349

(2)

14.3.1 Minimizing Metal Implant Corrosion in vivo

351

(1)

14.4 Degradation of Ceramics

351

(2)

14.4.1 Degradation by Dissolution and Disintegration

351

(1)

14.4.2 Cell-Mediated Degradation

352

(1)

14.5 Concluding Remarks

353

(2)

15 Degradation of Polymeric Biomaterials

355

(18)

15.1 Introduction

355

(1)

15.2 Hydrolytic Degradation

356

(2)

15.2.1 Hydrolytic Degradation Pathways

356

(1)

15.2.2 Role of the Physiological Environment

357

(1)

15.2.3 Effect of Local pH Changes

357

(1)

15.2.4 Effect of Inorganic Ions

358

(1)

15.2.5 Effect of Bacteria

358

(1)

15.3 Enzyme-Catalyzed Hydrolysis

358

(4)

15.3.1 Principles of Enzyme-Catalyzed Hydrolysis

359

(1)

15.3.2 Role of Enzymes in Hydrolytic Degradation in vitro

360

(2)

15.3.3 Role of Enzymes in Hydrolytic Degradation in vivo

362

(1)

15.4 Oxidative Degradation

362

(7)

15.4.1 Principles of Oxidative Degradation

363

(1)

15.4.2 Production of Radicals and Reactive Species in vivo

363

(3)

15.4.3 Role of Radicals and Reactive Species in Degradation

366

(1)

15.4.4 Oxidative Degradation of Polymeric Biomaterials

367

(2)

15.5 Other Types of Degradation

369

(2)

15.5.1 Stress Cracking

369

(1)

15.5.2 Metal Ion-Induced Oxidative Degradation

370

(1)

15.5.3 Oxidative Degradation Induced by the External Environment

370

(1)

15.6 Concluding Remarks

371

(2)

Part V Biocompatibility Phenomena

373

(142)

16 Biocompatibility Fundamentals

375

(26)

16.1 Introduction

375

(1)

16.2 Biocompatibility Phenomena with Implanted Devices

375

(3)

16.2.1 Consequences of Failed Biocompatibility

376

(1)

16.2.2 Basic Pattern of Biocompatibility Processes

377

(1)

16.3 Protein and Cell Interactions with Biomaterial Surfaces

378

(2)

16.3.1 Protein Adsorption onto Biomaterials

378

(1)

16.3.2 Cell-Biomaterial Interactions

378

(2)

16.4 Cells and Organelles

380

(9)

16.4.1 Plasma Membrane

380

(2)

16.4.2 Cell Nucleus

382

(2)

16.4.3 Ribosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, and the Golgi Apparatus

384

(2)

16.4.4 Mitochondria

386

(1)

16.4.5 Cytoskeleton

386

(2)

16.4.6 Cell Contacts and Membrane Receptors

388

(1)

16.5 Extracellular Matrix and Tissues

389

(4)

16.5.1 Components of the Extracellular Matrix

389

(1)

16.5.2 Attachment Factors

389

(1)

16.5.3 Cell Adhesion Molecules

390

(1)

16.5.4 Molecular and Physical Factors in Cell Attachment

391

(1)

16.5.5 Tissue Types and Origins

391

(2)

16.6 Plasma and Blood Cells

393

(3)

16.6.1 Erythrocytes

393

(2)

16.6.2 Leukocytes

395

(1)

16.7 Platelet Adhesion to Biomaterial Surfaces

396

(1)

16.8 Platelets and the Coagulation Process

396

(2)

16.9 Cell Types and Their Roles in Biocompatibility Phenomena

398

(1)

16.10 Concluding Remarks

399

(2)

17 Mechanical Factors in Biocompatibility Phenomena

401

(13)

17.1 Introduction

401

(1)

17.2 Stages and Mechanisms of Mechanotransduction

401

(6)

17.2.1 Force Transduction Pathways

401

(2)

17.2.2 Signal Transduction Pathways and Other Mechanisms

403

(1)

17.2.3 Mechanisms of Cellular Response

404

(3)

17.3 Mechanical Stress-Induced Biocompatibility Phenomena

407

(7)

17.3.1 Implantable Devices in Bone Healing

407

(1)

17.3.2 Implantable Devices in the Cardiovascular System

408

(2)

17.3.3 Soft Tissue Healing

410

(1)

17.3.4 Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering

411

(3)

17 A Outcomes of Transduction of Extracellular Stresses and Responses

414

(3)

17.5 Concluding Remarks

414

(3)

18 Inflammatory Reactions to Biomaterials

417

(20)

18.1 Introduction

417

(1)

18.2 Implant Interaction with Plasma Proteins

418

(1)

18.3 Formation of Provisional Matrix

418

(1)

18.4 Acute Inflammation and Neutrophils

419

(4)

18.4.1 Neutrophil Activation and Extravasation

419

(2)

18.4.2 Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species

421

(1)

18.4.3 Phagocytosis by Neutrophils

421

(1)

18.4.4 Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs)

421

(2)

18.4.5 Neutrophil Apoptosis

423

(1)

18.5 Chronic Inflammation and Macrophages

423

(3)

18.5.1 Macrophage Differentiation and Recruitment to Implant Surfaces

423

(1)

18.5.2 Phagocytosis by M1 Macrophages

424

(1)

18.5.3 Generation of Oxidative Radicals by M1 Macrophages

425

(1)

18.5.4 Anti-inflammatory Activities of M2 Macrophages

425

(1)

18.6 Granulation Tissue

426

(1)

18.7 Foreign Body Response

427

(2)

18.8 Fibrosis and Fibrous Encapsulation

429

(1)

18.9 Resolution of Inflammation

430

(1)

18.10 Inflammation and Biocompatibility

431

(2)

18.11 Concluding Remarks

433

(4)

19 Immune Responses to Biomaterials

437

(12)

19.1 Introduction

437

(1)

19.2 Adaptive Immune System

437

(6)

19.2.1 Lymphocyte Origins of Two Types of Adaptive Immune Defense

438

(1)

19.2.2 Antibody Characteristics and Classes

438

(1)

19.2.3 Major Histocompatibility Complex and Self-Tolerance

439

(1)

19.2.4 B Cell Activation and Release of Antibodies

440

(1)

19.2.5 T Cell Development and Cell-Mediated Immunity

440

(3)

19.3 The Complement System

443

(1)

19.4 Adaptive Immune Responses to Biomaterials

443

(3)

19.4.1 Hypersensitivity Responses

444

(1)

19.4.2 Immune Responses to Protein-Based Biomaterials and Complexes

445

(1)

19.5 Designing Biomaterials to Modulate Immune Responses

446

(1)

19.6 Concluding Remarks

447

(2)

20 Implant-Associated Infections

449

(14)

20.1 Introduction

449

(1)

20.2 Bacteria Associated with Implant Infections

450

(1)

20.3 Biofilms and their Characteristics

450

(1)

20.4 Sequence of Biofilm Formation on Implant Surfaces

451

(2)

20.4.1 Passive Reversible Adhesion of Bacteria to Implant Surface

452

(1)

20.4.2 Specific Irreversible Attachment of Bacteria to Implant Surface

452

(1)

20.4.3 Microcolony Expansion and Formation of Biofilm Matrix

452

(1)

20.4.4 Biofilm Maturation and Tower Formation

453

(1)

20.4.5 Dispersal and Return to Planktonic State

453

(1)

20.5 Effect of Biomaterial Characteristics on Bacterial Adhesion

453

(1)

20.6 Biofilm Shielding of Infection from Host Defenses and Antibiotics

454

(1)

20.7 Effects of Biofilm on Host Tissues and Biomaterial Interactions

454

(2)

20.8 Strategies for Controlling Implant Infections

456

(4)

20.8.1 Orthopedic Implants Designed for Rapid Tissue Integration

456

(1)

20.8.2 Surface Nanotopography

457

(1)

20.8.3 Silver Nanoparticles

458

(1)

20.8.4 Anti-biofilm Polysaccharides

458

(1)

20.8.5 Bacteriophage Therapy

458

(1)

20.8.6 Mechanical Disruption

459

(1)

20.9 Concluding Remarks

460

(3)

21 Response to Surface Topography and Particulate Materials

463

(36)

21.1 Introduction

463

(1)

21.2 Effect of Biomaterial Surface Topography on Cell Response

464

(7)

21.2.1 Microscale Surface Topography in Osseointegration

466

(3)

21.2.2 Microscale and Nanoscale Patterned Surfaces in Macrophage Differentiation

469

(1)

21.2.3 Microscale Patterned Surfaces in Neural Regeneration

470

(1)

21.3 Biomaterial Surface Topography for Antimicrobial Activity

471

(11)

21.3.1 Microscale Topography with Antimicrobial Activity

471

(6)

21.3.2 Nanoscale Topography with Antimicrobial Activity

477

(5)

21.4 Microparticle-Induced Host Responses

482

(7)

21.4.1 Mechanisms of Microparticle Endocytosis

482

(1)

21.4.2 Response to Microparticles

483

(4)

21.4.3 Microparticle Distribution in the Organs

487

(1)

21.4.4 The Inflammasome and Microparticle-Induced Inflammation

488

(1)

21.4.5 Wear Debris-Induced Osteolysis

488

(1)

21.5 Nanoparticle-Induced Host Responses

489

(7)

21.5.1 Mechanisms of Nanoparticle Endocytosis

489

(1)

21.5.2 Response to Nanoparticles

489

(3)

21.5.3 Cytotoxicity Effects of Nanoparticles

492

(4)

21.6 Concluding Remarks

496

(3)

22 Tests of Biocompatibility of Prospective Implant Materials

499

(16)

22.1 Introduction

499

(1)

22.2 Biocompatibility Standards and Regulations

499

(1)

22.2.1 ISO 10993

499

(1)

22.2.2 FDA Guidelines and Requirements

500

(1)

22.3 In vitro Biocompatibility Test Procedures

500

(7)

22.3.1 Cytotoxicity Tests

500

(2)

22.3.2 Genotoxicity Tests

502

(2)

22.3.3 Hemocompatibility Tests

504

(3)

22.4 In vivo Biocompatibility Test Procedures

507

(4)

22.4.1 Implantation Tests

507

(2)

22.4.2 Thrombogenicity Tests

509

(1)

22.4.3 Irritation and Sensitization Tests

510

(1)

22.4 A Systemic Toxicity Tests

511

(1)

22.5 Clinical Trials of Biomaterials

511

(1)

22.6 FDA Review and Approval

512

(1)

22.7 Case Study: The Proplast Temporomandibular Joint

512

(1)

22.8 Concluding Remarks

513

(2)

Part VI Applications of Biomaterials

515

(166)

23 Biomaterials for Hard Tissue Repair

517

(30)

23.1 Introduction

517

(1)

23.2 Healing of Bone Fracture

518

(3)

23.2.1 Mechanism of Fracture Healing

518

(2)

23.2.2 Internal Fracture Fixation Devices

520

(1)

23.3 Healing of Bone Defects

521

(14)

23.3.1 Bone Defects

521

(1)

23.3.2 Bone Grafts

521

(2)

23.3.3 Bone Graft Substitutes

523

(4)

23.3.4 Healing of Nonstructural Bone Defects

527

(5)

23.3.5 Healing of Structural Bone Defects

532

(3)

23.4 Total Joint Replacement

535

(1)

23.4.1 Total Hip Arthroplasty

535

(1)

23.4.2 Total Knee Arthroplasty

536

(1)

23.5 Spinal Fusion

536

(3)

23.5.1 Biomaterials for Spinal Fusion

538

(1)

23.6 Dental Implants and Restorations

539

(4)

23.6.1 Dental Implants

539

(1)

23.6.2 Direct Dental Restorations

539

(1)

23.6.3 Indirect Dental Restorations

540

(3)

23.7 Concluding Remarks

543

(4)

24 Biomaterials for Soft Tissue Repair

547

(34)

24.1 Introduction

547

(1)

24.2 Surgical Sutures and Adhesives

548

(2)

24.2.1 Sutures

548

(1)

24.2.2 Soft Tissue Adhesives

549

(1)

24.3 The Cardiovascular System

550

(1)

24.3.1 The Heart

550

(1)

24.3.2 The Circulatory System

551

(1)

24.4 Vascular Grafts

551

(4)

24.4.1 Desirable Properties and Characteristics of Synthetic Vascular Grafts

552

(1)

24.4.2 Synthetic Vascular Graft Materials

552

(1)

24.4.3 Patency of Vascular Grafts

552

(3)

24.5 Balloon Angioplasty

555

(1)

24.6 Intravascular Stents

556

(2)

24.6.1 Bare-Metal Stents

556

(1)

24.6.2 Drug-Eluting Stents

557

(1)

24.6.3 Degradable Stents

557

(1)

24.7 Prosthetic Heart Valves

558

(2)

24.7.1 Mechanical Valves

558

(1)

24.7.2 Bioprosthetic Valves

559

(1)

24.8 Ophthalmologic Applications

560

(6)

24.8.1 Contact Lenses

561

(2)

24.8.2 Intraocular Lenses

563

(3)

24.9 Skin Wound Healing

566

(10)

24.9.1 Skin Wound Healing Fundamentals

567

(2)

24.9.2 Complicating Factors in Skin Wound Healing

569

(1)

24.9.3 Biomaterials-Based Therapies

569

(5)

24.9.4 Nanoparticle-Based Therapies

574

(2)

24.10 Concluding Remarks

576

(5)

25 Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

581

(52)

25.1 Introduction

581

(1)

25.2 Principles of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

582

(7)

25.2.1 Cells for Tissue Engineering

584

(3)

25.2.2 Biomolecules and Nutrients for in vitro Cell Culture

587

(1)

25.2.3 Growth Factors for Tissue Engineering

587

(1)

25.2.4 Cell Therapy

588

(1)

25.2.5 Gene Therapy

589

(1)

25.3 Biomaterials and Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering

589

(6)

25.3.1 Properties of Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering

589

(2)

25.3.2 Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds

591

(1)

25.3.3 Porous Solids

591

(3)

25.3.4 Hydrogels

594

(1)

25.3.5 Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Scaffolds

594

(1)

25.4 Creation of Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering

595

(14)

25.4.1 Creation of Scaffolds in the Form of Porous Solids

596

(5)

25.4.2 Electrospinning

601

(2)

25.4.3 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) Techniques

603

(5)

25.4.4 Formation of Hydrogel Scaffolds

608

(1)

25.4.5 Preparation of Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Scaffolds

608

(1)

25.5 Three-dimensional Bioprinting

609

(5)

25.5.1 Inkjet-Based Bioprinting

609

(2)

25.5.2 Microextrusion-Based Bioprinting

611

(3)

25.6 Tissue Engineering Techniques for the Regeneration of Functional Tissues and Organs

614

(15)

25.6.1 Bone Tissue Engineering

614

(1)

25.6.2 Articular Cartilage Tissue Engineering

615

(3)

25.6.3 Tissue Engineering of Articular Joints

618

(3)

25.6.4 Tissue Engineering of Tendons and Ligaments

621

(3)

25.6.5 Skin Tissue Engineering

624

(2)

25.6.6 Bladder Tissue Engineering

626

(3)

25.7 Concluding Remarks

629

(4)

26 Biomaterials for Drug Delivery

633

(48)

26.1 Introduction

633

(1)

26.2 Controlled Drug Release

634

(4)

26.2.1 Drug Delivery Systems

636

(1)

26.2.2 Mechanisms of Drug Release

636

(2)

26.3 Designing Biomaterials for Drug Delivery Systems

638

(1)

26.4 Microparticle-based Delivery Systems

638

(2)

26.4.1 Preparation of Polymer Microsphere Delivery Systems

639

(1)

26.4.2 Applications of Microparticle Delivery Systems

640

(1)

26.5 Hydrogel-based Delivery Systems

640

(8)

26.5.1 Environmentally Responsive Drug Delivery Systems

641

(3)

26.5.2 Drug Delivery Systems Responsive to External Physical Stimuli

644

(4)

26.6 Nanoparticle-based Delivery Systems

648

(20)

26.6.1 Distribution and Fate of Nanoparticle-based Drug Delivery Systems

649

(1)

26.6.2 Targeting of Nanoparticles to Cells

650

(3)

26.6.3 Polymer-based Nanoparticle Systems

653

(2)

26.6.4 Lipid-based Nanoparticle Systems

655

(8)

26.6.5 Polymer Conjugates

663

(3)

26.6.6 Dendrimers

666

(1)

26.6.7 Inorganic Nanoparticles

667

(1)

26.7 Delivery of Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

668

(7)

26.7.1 Chemical Modification of siRNA

670

(1)

26.7.2 Biomaterials for siRNA Delivery

671

(4)

26.8 Biological Drug Delivery Systems

675

(1)

26.8.1 Exosomes for Therapeutic Biomolecule Delivery

675

(1)

26.9 Concluding Remarks

676

(5)

Index

681

Mohamed N. Rahaman, Professor Emeritus of Materials Science and Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, USA. Dr. Rahaman is a Fellow of the American Ceramic Society, the author of five textbooks, the author and co-author of over 280 reviewed journal articles and conference proceedings, and the co-inventor on three US patents in the area of medical devices.

Roger F. Brown, Professor Emeritus of Biological Sciences, Missouri University of Science and Technology, USA. Dr Brown is the author and co-author of over 60 reviewed journal articles and conference proceedings, and is a co-inventor on one US patent pertaining to the use of bioactive borate glass microfibers for soft tissue repair.

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