Acknowledgment |
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v | |
Preface |
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vii | |
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xxv | |
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xxxv | |
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SECTION I---MTBE HISTORY, PROPERTIES, OCCURRENCE, AND ASSESSMENT |
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3 | (8) |
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3 | (3) |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (3) |
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Underground Storage Tank (UST) Leaks and Overfills |
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6 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (2) |
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9 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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9 | (2) |
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Chemical and Physical Properties |
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11 | (8) |
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11 | (1) |
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11 | (3) |
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14 | (1) |
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14 | (1) |
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14 | (1) |
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15 | (1) |
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15 | (1) |
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16 | (1) |
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16 | (2) |
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18 | (1) |
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Fate and Transport of MTBE and Other Gasoline Components |
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19 | (44) |
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Transport and Fate of Vapors of MTBE in the Unsaturated Zone |
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20 | (1) |
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Partitioning of MTBE from Gasoline Directly to Ground Water |
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21 | (4) |
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Separation of MTBE from BTEX Along a Flow Path |
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25 | (3) |
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Role of Dilution and Dispersion |
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28 | (3) |
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Role of Biodegradation of MTBE |
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31 | (5) |
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Production and Biodegradation of TBA |
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36 | (3) |
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False Attenuation: Missing the Plume with Monitoring Wells |
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39 | (6) |
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Missing the Plume: Plume Diving Behavior in Uniform Sand Aquifers |
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45 | (2) |
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Two Possible Life Cycles of Plumes |
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47 | (2) |
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The Plume Comes to Steady State, Then Recedes Back to the LNAPL |
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49 | (1) |
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The Plume Fails to Come to Steady State, and the Hot Spot Moves Downgradient |
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50 | (6) |
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Overview of Factors That Lead to Long MTBE Plumes |
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56 | (1) |
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57 | (1) |
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57 | (6) |
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MTBE Occurrence in Surface and Ground Water |
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63 | (10) |
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63 | (1) |
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MTBE and the USGS NAWQA Program |
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63 | (1) |
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National MTBE Survey and the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic States Study |
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64 | (1) |
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Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM) |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (1) |
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MTBE Occurence in England and Wales |
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66 | (1) |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (1) |
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68 | (2) |
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70 | (3) |
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73 | (20) |
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73 | (1) |
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Identification of Receptors |
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74 | (1) |
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Initial Subsurface Investigation |
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74 | (3) |
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74 | (1) |
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74 | (2) |
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76 | (1) |
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Ground Water Sample Collection |
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77 | (1) |
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Determination of Ground Water Flow Direction |
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77 | (1) |
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Methods of Soil and Ground Water Sample Collection |
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77 | (8) |
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Drilling and Soil Sample Collection |
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78 | (2) |
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Ground Water Sample Collection |
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80 | (2) |
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Soil and Ground Water Analytical Methods |
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82 | (2) |
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84 | (1) |
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85 | (3) |
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86 | (1) |
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86 | (1) |
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Evaluation of Soil Gas and Indoor Air Migration Pathways |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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Identifying Migration Pathways |
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88 | (2) |
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90 | (3) |
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Laboratory Analysis of Oxygenated Gasoline Constituents |
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93 | (28) |
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93 | (1) |
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Properties of Oxygenated Gasoline Components |
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94 | (1) |
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Sample Preservation Methods |
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95 | (5) |
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Sample Preparation Methods |
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100 | (3) |
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Separation of Volatiles from Aqueous Solution |
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100 | (2) |
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Concentration of Separated Volatiles |
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102 | (1) |
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103 | (2) |
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Optimum Methods for Analysis of Fuel Oxygenates in Ground Water |
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105 | (10) |
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115 | (4) |
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119 | (2) |
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121 | (50) |
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121 | (2) |
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Evaluating Human Health Risks |
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123 | (25) |
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123 | (5) |
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128 | (4) |
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132 | (6) |
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138 | (10) |
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Evaluating Ecological Risks |
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148 | (2) |
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European Risk Assessment of MTBE |
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150 | (1) |
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151 | (1) |
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152 | (2) |
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154 | (17) |
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SECTION II---APPLICABLE REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES |
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171 | (18) |
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Introduction and Major Phases |
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171 | (3) |
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173 | (1) |
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174 | (1) |
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174 | (1) |
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174 | (12) |
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174 | (2) |
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176 | (1) |
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177 | (8) |
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185 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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186 | (3) |
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189 | (12) |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (2) |
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190 | (1) |
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190 | (1) |
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190 | (1) |
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191 | (1) |
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191 | (7) |
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191 | (1) |
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191 | (1) |
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191 | (6) |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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199 | (2) |
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Soil Vapor Extraction, Bioventing, and Air Sparging |
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201 | (22) |
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201 | (7) |
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201 | (2) |
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203 | (1) |
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203 | (5) |
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Contaminant Considerations |
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208 | (1) |
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208 | (1) |
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208 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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210 | (1) |
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210 | (2) |
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211 | (1) |
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211 | (1) |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (1) |
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Maximizing Biodegradation |
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212 | (1) |
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Maximizing Volatilization |
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212 | (1) |
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Airflow and Pressure Relationships |
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213 | (1) |
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Zone of Influence and Well Spacing |
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213 | (3) |
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Modeling and Pilot Testing |
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216 | (1) |
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Summary of Extraction System Effectiveness |
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216 | (1) |
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Summary of Injection System Effectiveness |
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217 | (1) |
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217 | (3) |
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217 | (1) |
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217 | (1) |
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218 | (1) |
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218 | (1) |
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Injecting Gases Other than Air |
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219 | (1) |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (1) |
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220 | (3) |
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In Situ Chemical Oxidation |
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223 | (20) |
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223 | (1) |
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224 | (4) |
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224 | (2) |
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Proven Effectiveness in Field or Laboratory |
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226 | (1) |
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Practical Design Considerations |
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227 | (1) |
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228 | (3) |
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228 | (1) |
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Proven Effectiveness in Field or Laboratory |
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229 | (2) |
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Practical Design Considerations |
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231 | (1) |
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231 | (2) |
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231 | (1) |
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Proven Effectiveness in Field or Laboratory |
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232 | (1) |
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Practical Design Considerations |
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233 | (1) |
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233 | (1) |
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233 | (1) |
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Proven Effectiveness in Field or Laboratory |
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234 | (1) |
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Practical Design Considerations |
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234 | (1) |
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234 | (3) |
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234 | (1) |
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Proven Effectiveness in Field or Laboratory |
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235 | (1) |
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236 | (1) |
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Practical Design Considerations |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (2) |
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237 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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239 | (4) |
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Aerobic In Situ Bioremediation |
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243 | (22) |
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Microbiology and Biochemistry of Aerobic MTBE Biodegradation |
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244 | (2) |
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246 | (2) |
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Biodegradation of MTBE, Petroleum Hydrocarbons, and Consumption of Oxygen |
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248 | (3) |
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Prospects for Biodegradation of MTBE in the Field by Native Microorganisms |
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251 | (2) |
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Remedial Technology for Ground Water |
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253 | (7) |
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260 | (1) |
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260 | (5) |
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Anaerobic In Situ Bioremediation |
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265 | (14) |
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265 | (1) |
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Anaerobic Processes in Subsurface Sediment |
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265 | (2) |
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Anaerobic Bioremediation Strategies |
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267 | (1) |
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Anaerobic MTBE Biodegradation with Different Terminal Electron Acceptors |
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268 | (4) |
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268 | (1) |
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269 | (2) |
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271 | (1) |
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272 | (1) |
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Anaerobic TBA Biodegradation |
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272 | (1) |
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Implications for MTBE and TBA Bioremediation |
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273 | (3) |
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276 | (3) |
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Phytoremediation of MTBE---A Review of the State of the Technology |
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279 | (10) |
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280 | (6) |
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280 | (2) |
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282 | (1) |
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283 | (1) |
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284 | (1) |
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State of California Water Resources Control Board |
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285 | (1) |
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Conclusions and Future Work |
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286 | (1) |
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287 | (2) |
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Ground Water Recovery and Treatment |
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289 | (40) |
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Perspective of Ground Water Recovery and Treatment |
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289 | (1) |
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Relationship to Potable Water |
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290 | (1) |
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291 | (1) |
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291 | (1) |
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291 | (1) |
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292 | (4) |
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292 | (1) |
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293 | (1) |
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293 | (1) |
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Materials of Construction |
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293 | (1) |
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Typical Extraction Well Construction |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (1) |
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295 | (1) |
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296 | (1) |
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Specialized Extraction Systems |
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296 | (1) |
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297 | (1) |
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298 | (5) |
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Granular Activated Carbon (Liquid Phase) |
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299 | (4) |
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303 | (3) |
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303 | (1) |
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304 | (1) |
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304 | (1) |
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304 | (1) |
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305 | (1) |
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305 | (1) |
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305 | (1) |
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305 | (1) |
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306 | (1) |
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306 | (2) |
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308 | (1) |
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308 | (3) |
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308 | (1) |
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309 | (1) |
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Diffused Aeration Stripper |
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309 | (1) |
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310 | (1) |
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311 | (3) |
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Thermal and Catalytic Thermal Oxidation |
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311 | (1) |
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Granular Activated Carbon |
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312 | (1) |
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313 | (1) |
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314 | (1) |
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Interferences for Stripping |
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314 | (1) |
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314 | (1) |
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315 | (1) |
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315 | (1) |
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315 | (1) |
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315 | (1) |
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315 | (5) |
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316 | (1) |
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317 | (2) |
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319 | (1) |
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Membrane Separation (Reverse Osmosis) |
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320 | (2) |
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Advanced Oxidation Processes |
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322 | (1) |
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322 | (2) |
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322 | (1) |
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322 | (1) |
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323 | (1) |
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323 | (1) |
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323 | (1) |
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324 | (1) |
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325 | (1) |
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325 | (1) |
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325 | (1) |
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Costing Pump-and-Treat Systems |
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325 | (2) |
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327 | (2) |
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Monitored Natural Attenuation of MTBE |
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329 | (20) |
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Background on Monitored Natural Attenuation |
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329 | (1) |
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The NRC Strategy for Evaluating Natural Attenuation |
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330 | (1) |
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331 | (1) |
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Recent Findings on MTBE and Natural Attenuation |
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332 | (5) |
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332 | (4) |
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336 | (1) |
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337 | (1) |
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Evidence on Anaerobic Biodegradation of MTBE |
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337 | (1) |
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Updating the NRC guidance for Natural Attenuation of MTBE |
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337 | (5) |
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338 | (1) |
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338 | (1) |
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338 | (4) |
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342 | (1) |
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343 | (6) |
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SECTION III---REMEDIATION CASE STUDIES |
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Remedial Costs for MTBE in Soil and Ground Water |
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349 | (12) |
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349 | (1) |
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350 | (1) |
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Cost Comparisons for MTBE and BTEX Remediations |
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351 | (2) |
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353 | (1) |
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Remedial Technologies Used at USTS in New York State |
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354 | (1) |
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Efficiency of Remedial Technologies |
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355 | (3) |
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358 | (1) |
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359 | (1) |
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359 | (1) |
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360 | (1) |
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Remediation Experiences in Finland |
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361 | (16) |
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361 | (1) |
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Legislation for Soil and Ground Water Protection in Finland |
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361 | (1) |
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361 | (1) |
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Aquifers and Water Service in Finland |
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362 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
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Fuel Handling at Retail Stations --- Technology and Practices |
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362 | (1) |
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Practices in Soil and Ground Water Investigation and Risk Assessment at NESTE Sites |
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363 | (1) |
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Practices in Soil and Ground Water Remediation at NESTE Sites |
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364 | (4) |
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Cost of Remediation of Retail Sites in Finland |
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366 | (2) |
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368 | (6) |
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Case 1 --- Traditional Practices, High Hopes, and Not Enough Information |
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368 | (3) |
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Case 2 --- Traditional Approach and Methods Applied Successfully to Remediate a Service Station Site and Natural Spring |
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371 | (2) |
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Case 3 --- Emergency Remediation Operation |
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373 | (1) |
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Forensic Findings --- The Reasons for the Releases |
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374 | (1) |
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375 | (2) |
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USEPA Case Studies Database for MTBE Remediation |
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377 | (18) |
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377 | (11) |
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388 | (2) |
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390 | (1) |
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390 | (1) |
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390 | (1) |
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390 | (1) |
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391 | (3) |
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394 | (1) |
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Remediation of Realeases Containing MTBE at Gasoline Station Sites---ENSR International's Experience |
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395 | (12) |
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Why MTBE Makes a Difference and How Do We Exploit Its Properties for Remediation |
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396 | (1) |
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396 | (1) |
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396 | (1) |
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Recovery of MTBE in Ground Water |
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397 | (1) |
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397 | (1) |
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Driving Forces to Site Remediation |
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397 | (1) |
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398 | (1) |
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ENSR's Experience Remediating MTBE |
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398 | (1) |
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399 | (4) |
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Remediation Selection Factors |
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403 | (1) |
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404 | (1) |
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Future Trends in Remediation |
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404 | (1) |
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Compliance, Early Detection, and Quick Response |
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404 | (1) |
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405 | (2) |
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Source Control and Point of Entry Treatment at a Massachusetts Site |
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407 | (12) |
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407 | (1) |
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407 | (1) |
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408 | (1) |
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408 | (2) |
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408 | (1) |
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|
408 | (2) |
|
Hydrogeological Parameters |
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410 | (1) |
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Nature and Extent of Contamination |
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410 | (1) |
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410 | (1) |
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411 | (1) |
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411 | (2) |
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413 | (1) |
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413 | (1) |
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413 | (1) |
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413 | (1) |
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413 | (1) |
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414 | (1) |
|
Required Cleanup Levels and Timeframes |
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414 | (1) |
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414 | (1) |
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414 | (1) |
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415 | (1) |
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415 | (1) |
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415 | (1) |
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415 | (1) |
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416 | (1) |
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416 | (1) |
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417 | (2) |
|
Physical Treatment at a New Hampshire Site |
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419 | (16) |
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419 | (1) |
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419 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
|
Hydrogeological Parameters |
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421 | (1) |
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Nature and Extent of Contamination |
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|
421 | (3) |
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|
421 | (1) |
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|
421 | (3) |
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424 | (3) |
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|
427 | (1) |
|
Required Cleanup Levels and Timeframes |
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428 | (1) |
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428 | (1) |
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428 | (1) |
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428 | (1) |
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429 | (1) |
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429 | (3) |
|
Immediate Response Actions |
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429 | (1) |
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430 | (1) |
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430 | (1) |
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431 | (1) |
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|
431 | (1) |
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432 | (1) |
|
Monitoring and Enhanced Bioremediation |
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|
432 | (1) |
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|
432 | (1) |
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433 | (1) |
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|
433 | (2) |
|
Physical Treatment at a Massachusetts Site |
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|
435 | (10) |
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435 | (1) |
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435 | (2) |
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437 | (1) |
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|
437 | (1) |
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|
437 | (1) |
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|
437 | (1) |
|
Hydogeological Parameters |
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|
438 | (1) |
|
Nature and Extent of Contamination |
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|
438 | (1) |
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|
438 | (1) |
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|
438 | (1) |
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439 | (1) |
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440 | (1) |
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440 | (1) |
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|
440 | (1) |
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441 | (1) |
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|
441 | (1) |
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|
441 | (1) |
|
Required Cleanup Levels and Timeframes |
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|
441 | (1) |
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|
441 | (1) |
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|
442 | (1) |
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|
442 | (1) |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
|
443 | (2) |
|
Strategic Pumping to Divert an MTBE/BTEX Plume from Municipal Water Supply Wells |
|
|
445 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
|
446 | (2) |
|
|
448 | (2) |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
Hydrogeological Parameters |
|
|
448 | (2) |
|
Nature and Extent of Contamination |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
|
453 | (2) |
|
Ozone Microbubble Sparging at a California Site |
|
|
455 | (18) |
|
|
|
Treatment Technology Overview --- Ozone Oxidation and Microbubble Treatment |
|
|
455 | (3) |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Oxidation Chemical Mechanisms |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Oxidant Application and Spread |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Site Description and Release History |
|
|
458 | (4) |
|
Previous Environmental Work |
|
|
459 | (3) |
|
|
462 | (2) |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
Stoichiometric VOC Demand |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
Projected Time to Treat (Duration) Computation --- Mass Basis |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
465 | (5) |
|
|
470 | (1) |
|
Conclusions and Recommendations |
|
|
470 | (1) |
|
|
471 | (2) |
|
MTBE Cleanup Technology Evaluations at the Port Hueneme NETTS |
|
|
473 | (30) |
|
|
Ground Water Circulation Well Environmental Cleanup Systems |
|
|
475 | (2) |
|
In Situ Air Sparging System |
|
|
477 | (2) |
|
Extraction of MTBE by a Hollow Fiber Membrane |
|
|
479 | (3) |
|
High Energy Electron Injection |
|
|
482 | (3) |
|
HiPOx Advanced Oxidation for the Remediation of MTBE |
|
|
485 | (2) |
|
In Situ Bioremediation of MTBE |
|
|
487 | (2) |
|
Direct Injection of a Bacterial Culture to Biodegrade MTBE-Impacted Ground Water |
|
|
489 | (3) |
|
Large-Scale Biobarrier Demonstration |
|
|
492 | (3) |
|
In Situ Remediation of MTBE Impacted Aquifer Using Propane Biostimulation |
|
|
495 | (3) |
|
Natural Attenuation of MTBE in An Anaerobic Ground Water Plume |
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
Natural Attenuation of MTBE in Ground Water Under Methanogenic Conditions |
|
|
499 | (4) |
|
Bioremediation at a New Jersey Site Using Propane-Oxidizing Bacteria |
|
|
503 | (14) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
503 | (1) |
|
|
504 | (4) |
|
|
504 | (2) |
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
Field-Scale System Implementation and Operation |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
508 | (7) |
|
|
508 | (1) |
|
|
508 | (7) |
|
In Situ Biotreatment Summary |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
Application of an In Situ Bioremedy Biobarrier at a Retail Gas Station |
|
|
517 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Site Location and Geology/Hydrogeology |
|
|
517 | (1) |
|
Nature and Extent of Contamination and Potential Receptors |
|
|
517 | (1) |
|
|
518 | (2) |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
Components of Biobarrier System |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
|
518 | (2) |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
|
520 | (4) |
|
Field Pilot/Evaluation Test |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
|
522 | (2) |
|
Performance of the Bioremedy Biobarrier |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
|
525 | (2) |
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
|
527 | (2) |
|
Ground Water Recovery and Bioreactor Treatment at a California Site |
|
|
529 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
529 | (2) |
|
|
529 | (1) |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
|
531 | (8) |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
Interim Enhanced Vacuum Extraction |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
|
532 | (7) |
|
|
539 | (2) |
|
Natural Attenuation of Tert Butyl Alcohol at a Texas Chemical Plant |
|
|
541 | (20) |
|
|
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
Previous Work on TBA Degradation |
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
Influence of TBA Properties on Natural Attenuation |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
|
543 | (3) |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
Natural Attenuation of TBA in the Plant II Area Plume |
|
|
547 | (7) |
|
Role of Diffusion in Plant II Area Plume Natural Attenuation |
|
|
549 | (2) |
|
Use of Carbon Isotopes to Document TBA Biodegradation |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
Mechanisms of TBA Biodegradation |
|
|
552 | (2) |
|
Estimation of Natural Biodegradation Rates |
|
|
554 | (4) |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
558 | (3) |
|
Natural Attenuation of Benzene and MTBE at Four Midwestern U.S. Sites |
|
|
561 | (20) |
|
|
|
|
562 | (2) |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
|
564 | (4) |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
|
566 | (2) |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
|
568 | (2) |
|
|
570 | (2) |
|
|
572 | (3) |
|
|
575 | (2) |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
|
578 | (3) |
|
|
|
Appendix A---MTBE Occurrence in Surface and Ground Water |
|
|
581 | (66) |
|
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
MTBE and the USGS's NAWQA Program |
|
|
581 | (21) |
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
|
583 | (9) |
|
|
592 | (7) |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
|
600 | (2) |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
MTBE Occurrence in the United States |
|
|
602 | (19) |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic States |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM) |
|
|
604 | (7) |
|
|
611 | (5) |
|
Conclusions of the Midwestern States Study |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
|
616 | (5) |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
MTBE Occurrence in England and Wales |
|
|
621 | (6) |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
|
622 | (2) |
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
|
624 | (2) |
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
Plume Length Studies (Texas, Florida, and California) |
|
|
627 | (8) |
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
History of MTBE in California |
|
|
631 | (4) |
|
Comparison among Texas, Florida, and California |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
Comparison of Plume Lengths for MTBE and BTEX at 212 South Carolina Sites |
|
|
635 | (3) |
|
|
638 | (2) |
|
|
640 | (5) |
|
|
645 | (2) |
|
Appendix B---Primary Author Contact Information |
|
|
647 | (6) |
|
|
653 | |