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E-raamat: Nanosensors: Physical, Chemical, and Biological

4.33/5 (3 hinnangut Goodreads-ist)

Vinod Kumar Khanna (CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, India)

Formaat: 578 pages
Sari: Series in Sensors
Ilmumisaeg: 25-Feb-2021
Kirjastus: CRC Press
ISBN-13: 9781000331356

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Formaat: 578 pages
Sari: Series in Sensors
Ilmumisaeg: 25-Feb-2021
Kirjastus: CRC Press
ISBN-13: 9781000331356

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Nanosensors: Physical, Chemical, and Biological, Second Edition offers a panoramic view of the field and related nanotechnologies with extraordinary clarity and depth.

Nanosensors are innovative devices that exploit the unique properties exhibited by matter at the nanoscale. A growing and exciting field, nanosensors have recently spurred considerable research endeavors across the globe, driving a need for the development of new device concepts and engineering nanostructured materials with controlled properties. Nanosensors: Physical, Chemical, and Biological, Second Edition offers a panoramic view of the field and related nanotechnologies with extraordinary clarity and depth.

Presenting an interdisciplinary approach, blending physics, chemistry and biology, this new edition is broad in scope and organised into six parts; beginning with the fundamentals before moving onto nanomaterials and nanofabrication technologies in the second part. The third and fourth parts provide a critical appraisal of physical nanosensors, and explore the chemical and biological categories of nanosensors. The fifth part sheds light on the emerging applications of nanosensors in the sectors of society, industry, and defense and details the cutting-edge applications of state-of-the-art nanosensors in environmental science, food technology, medical diagnostics, and biotechnology. The final part addresses self-powering and networking issues of nanosensors, and provides glimpses of future trends.

This is an ideal reference for researchers and industry professionals engaged in the frontier areas of material science and semiconductor fabrication as well as graduate students in physics and engineering pursuing electrical engineering and electronics courses with a focus on nanoscience and nanotechnology.

Key features:

Provides an updated, all-encompassing exploration of contemporary nanosensors and highlights the exclusive nanoscale properties on which nanosensors are designed.
Presents an accessible approach with a question-and-answer format to allow an easy grasp of the intricacies involved in the complex working mechanisms of devices.
Contains clear, illustrative diagrams enabling the visualization of nanosensor operations, along with worked examples, end of chapter questions, and exhaustive up-to-date bibliographies appended to each chapter.

Preface to the Second Edition

xxiii

Preface to the First Edition

xxv

Acknowledgments

xxvii

Author's Profile

xxix

About the Book (2nd Edition)

xxxi

Abbreviations and Acronyms

xxxiii

Mathematical Notation

xli

Part I Fundamental Concepts of Nanosensors

1 Introduction to Nanosensors

(44)

1.1 Getting Started with Nanosensors

(1)

1.2 Natural Sciences

(1)

1.3 Physics

(4)

1.3.1 Definition of Physics

(1)

1.3.2 Branches of Physics

(1)

1.3.3 Matter: Its States, Materials, and Particles

(1)

1.3.4 Molecules, Atoms, and Atomic Structure

(1)

1.3.5 Mechanics

(1)

1.3.6 Heat

(1)

1.3.7 Sound

(1)

1.3.8 Light

(1)

1.3.9 Electricity

(1)

1.3.10 Magnetism

(1)

1.3.11 Electromagnetism

(1)

1.3.12 SI System of Units

(1)

1.4 Chemistry

(3)

1.4.1 Definition of Chemistry

(1)

1.4.2 Elements and Compounds

(1)

1.4.3 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

(1)

1.4.4 Subdivisions of Chemistry

(1)

1.4.5 Natural and Artificial Elements

(1)

1.4.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

(1)

1.4.7 Periodic Table of Elements

(1)

1.4.8 Chemical Change and Reaction

(1)

1.4.9 Electronic Configuration (Structure) of Elements

(1)

1.4.10 Chemical Bond

(1)

1.4.11 Oxidation and Reduction

(1)

1.4.12 Acid, Base, and Salt

(1)

1.4.13 Expressing Concentrations of Solutions and Gases

(1)

1.4.14 Hydrocarbons: Saturated and Unsaturated

(1)

1.4.15 Alkyl and Aryl Groups

(1)

1.4.16 Alcohols and Phenols

(1)

1.4.17 Carboxylic Acids

(1)

1.4.18 Aldehydes and Ketones

(1)

1.4.19 Amines and Amino Acids

(1)

1.4.20 Lipids

(1)

1.4.21 Carbohydrates

(1)

1.4.22 Proteins and Enzymes

(1)

1.5 Biology

(1)

1.5.1 What Is Biology?

(1)

1.5.2 Branches of Biology

(1)

1.5.3 Origin and Evolution of Life

(1)

1.5.4 The Cell

(1)

1.5.5 Differences between Bacteria and Viruses

(1)

1.5.6 Heredity, Chromosomes, Genes, and Related Terms

(1)

1.6 Semiconductor Electronics

(4)

1.6.1 What Is Semiconductor Electronics?

(1)

1.6.2 Energy Bands in Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators

(1)

1.6.3 Interesting Properties of Semiconductors

(2)

1.6.4 P--N Junction

(1)

1.6.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor

(1)

1.6.6 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor

(1)

1.6.7 Analog and Digital Circuits

(1)

1.7 Nanometer and Appreciation of Its Magnitude

(1)

1.8 Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

(1)

1.9 Nanomaterials and the Unusual Behavior at Nanoscales

(1)

1.10 Moving toward Sensors and Transducers: Meaning of Terms "Sensors" and "Transducers"

(1)

1.11 Definition of Sensor Parameters and Characteristics

(1)

1.12 Evolution of Semiconductor-Based Microsensors

(1)

1.13 From the Macrosensor to the Microsensor Age and the Necessity for Nanoscale Measurements

(2)

1.13.1 A Miniaturized Sensor Can Accomplish Many Tasks That a Bulky Device Cannot Perform

(1)

1.13.2 The Issue of Power Consumption

(1)

1.13.3 Low Response Times

(1)

1.13.4 Multi-Analyte Detection and Multifunctionality

(1)

1.13.5 Sensitivity Considerations and Need for Functionalization

(1)

1.13.6 Interfacing with Biomolecules

(1)

1.13.7 Low Costs

(1)

1.13.8 Possibility of a New Genre of Devices

(1)

1.14 Definition and Classification of Nanosensors

(1)

1.15 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Nanosensors

(1)

1.16 Some Examples of Nanosensors

(1)

1.16.1 Common Nanosensors

(1)

1.16.2 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nanosensors

(1)

1.16.3 Nanoscaled Thin-Film Sensors

(1)

1.16.4 Microcantilever- and Nanocanti lever-Enabled Nanosensors

(1)

1.17 Getting Familiar with Analytical and Characterization Tools: Microscopic Techniques to View Nanomaterials and Nanosensors

(3)

1.17.1 Scanning Electron Microscope

(1)

1.17.2 Transmission Electron Microscope

(1)

1.17.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscope

(1)

1.17.4 Atomic Force Microscope

(2)

1.18 Spectroscopic Techniques for Analyzing Chemical Composition of Nanomaterials and Nanosensors

(3)

1.18.1 Infrared Spectroscopy

(1)

1.18.2 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy

(1)

1.18.3 Raman Spectroscopy

(1)

1.18.4 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX)

(1)

1.18.5 Auger Electron Spectroscopy

(1)

1.18.6 X-Ray Diffraction

(1)

1.18.7 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy or Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis

(1)

1.18.8 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry

(1)

1.19 The Displacement Nanosensor: STM

(6)

1.19.1 Principle of Operation

(1)

1.19.2 Transmission Coefficient

(3)

1.19.3 Tunneling Current

(1)

1.19.4 Measurements with STM

(1)

1.19.4.1 Topography

(1)

1.19.4.2 Density of States

(1)

1.19.4.3 Linecut

(1)

1.19.4.4 DOS Map

(1)

1.20 The Force Nanosensor: AFM

(7)

1.20.1 Operating Principle

(1)

1.20.2 Lennard-Jones Potential and the Van der Waals Forces

(2)

1.20.3 Other Forces and Potentials

(1)

1.20.4 Force Sensor (Cantilever) and Force Measurement

(1)

1.20.5 Static and Dynamic Atomic Force Microscopy

(1)

1.20.6 Classification of Modes of Operation of AFM on the Basis of Contact

(1)

1.20.6.1 Contact Mode

(1)

1.20.6.2 Noncontact Mode

(1)

1.20.6.3 Tapping Mode (Intermittent-Contact Mode)

(1)

1.20.7 Frequency-Modulation Atomic Force Microscopy

(1)

1.20.8 Generic Calculation

(1)

1.21 Outline and Organization of the Book

(1)

1.22 Discussion and Conclusions

(5)

Review Exercises

(1)

References

(4)

Part II Nanomaterials and Micro/Nanofabrication Facilities

2 Materials for Nanosensors

(30)

2.1 Introduction

(1)

2.2 Nanoparticles or Nanoscale Particles, the Importance of the Intermediate Regime between Atoms and Molecules, and Bulk Matter

(1)

2.3 Classification of Nanoparticles on the Basis of Their Composition and Occurrence

(1)

2.4 Core-/Shell-Structured Nanoparticles

(1)

2.4.1 Inorganic Core/Shell Nanoparticles

(1)

2.4.2 Organic--Inorganic Hybrid Core/Shell Nanoparticles

(1)

2.5 Shape Dependence of Properties at the Nanoscale

(1)

2.6 Dependence of Properties of Nanoparticles on Particle Size

(1)

2.7 Surface Energy of a Solid

(1)

2.8 Metallic Nanoparticles and Plasmons

(3)

2.8.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance on Bulk Metals

(2)

2.8.2 Surface Plasmon Band Phenomenon in Metal Nanoparticles

(1)

2.9 Optical Properties of Bulk Metals and Metallic Nanoparticles

(3)

2.9.1 Light Absorption by Bulk Metals and Metallic Nanoparticles

(3)

2.9.2 Light Scattering by Nanoparticles

(1)

2.10 Parameters Controlling the Position of Surface Plasmon Band of Nanoparticles

(1)

2.10.1 Effect of the Surrounding Dielectric Medium

(1)

2.10.2 Influence of Agglomeration-Preventing Ligands and Stabilizers

(1)

2.10.3 Effect of Nanoparticle Size and Shape

(1)

2.10.4 Compositional Effect

(1)

2.11 Quantum Confinement

(5)

2.11.1 Quantum Confinement in Metals

(1)

2.11.2 Quantum Confinement in Semiconductors

(1)

2.11.3 Bandgap Energies

(1)

2.11.4 Bandgap Behavior Explanation by Particle-in-a-One-Dimensional Box Model of Electron Behavior

(3)

2.12 Quantum Dots

(6)

2.12.1 Fundamentals

(1)

2.12.2 Tight-Binding Approach to Optical Bandgap (Exciton Energy) Versus Quantum Dot Size

(2)

2.12.3 Comparison of Quantum Dots With Organic Fluorophores

(2)

2.12.4 Types of Quantum Dots Depending on Composition

(1)

2.12.5 Classification of Quantum Dots Based on Structure

(1)

2.12.6 Capping Molecules or Ligands on the Surfaces of Quantum Dots

(1)

2.13 Carbon Nanotubes

(3)

2.13.1 What Are Carbon Nanotubes?

(1)

2.13.2 Structure of Graphene

(1)

2.13.3 Structure of SWCNTs

(1)

2.13.4 Mechanical Properties of CNTs

(1)

2.13.5 Electrical, Electronic, and Magnetic Properties of CNTs

(1)

2.14 Inorganic Nanowires

(1)

2.15 Nanoporous Materials

(2)

2.15.1 Nanoporous Silicon

(1)

2.15.2 Nanoporous Alumina

(1)

2.15.3 Nano-Grained Thin Films

(1)

2.16 Discussion and Conclusions

(4)

Review Exercises

(1)

References

(3)

3 Nanosensor Laboratory

(40)

3.1 Introduction

(1)

3.2 Nanotechnology Division

(7)

3.2.1 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles

(1)

3.2.1.1 Gold Nanoparticles

(1)

3.2.1.2 Silver Nanoparticles

(1)

3.2.1.3 Platinum Nanoparticles

(1)

3.2.1.4 Palladium Nanoparticles

(1)

3.2.2 Synthesis of Semiconductor Nanoparticles

(1)

3.2.3 Synthesis of Semiconductor Nanocrystals: Quantum Dots

(1)

3.2.3.1 CdSe/ZnS Core/Shell QDs

(1)

3.2.3.2 CdSe/CdS Core/Shell QDs

(1)

3.2.3.3 PbS and PbS/CdS Core/Shell QDs

(1)

3.2.4 Synthesis of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles

(1)

3.2.5 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes

(1)

3.2.5.1 Arc Discharge Method of CNT Production

(1)

3.2.5.2 Laser Ablation Method of CNT Production

(1)

3.2.5.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method of CNT Production

(2)

3.2.5.4 Difficulties Faced with Carbon Nanotubes

(1)

3.3 Micro- and Nanoelectronics Division

(16)

3.3.1 Semiconductor Clean Room

(1)

3.3.2 Silicon Single-Crystal Growth and Wafer Production

(1)

3.3.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy

(1)

3.3.4 Mask Making

(1)

3.3.5 Thermal Oxidation

(1)

3.3.6 Diffusion of Impurities in a Semiconductor

(2)

3.3.7 Ion Implantation

(1)

3.3.8 Photolithography

(1)

3.3.8.1 Physical Limits

(1)

3.3.8.2 Optical Lithography

(1)

3.3.8.3 Electron-Beam Lithography

(1)

3.3.8.4 X-Ray Lithography

(1)

3.3.8.5 Dip-Pen Nanolithography

(1)

3.3.8.6 Nanoimprint Lithography

(1)

3.3.8.7 Nanosphere Lithography

(1)

3.3.9 Chemical Vapor Deposition

(1)

3.3.10 Wet Chemical Etching and Common Etchants

(1)

3.3.11 Reactive Ion Etching

(1)

3.3.12 Focused Ion Beam Etching and Deposition

(1)

3.3.13 Metallization

(1)

3.3.14 Dicing, Wire Bonding, and Encapsulation

(1)

3.3.15 IC Downscaling: Special Technologies and Processes

(1)

3.3.15.1 Downscaling Trends

(1)

3.3.15.2 SOI-MOSFETs

(1)

3.3.15.3 SIMOX Process

(1)

3.3.15.4 Smart Cut Process

(1)

3.3.15.5 Strained Silicon Process

(1)

3.3.15.6 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches

(1)

3.3.15.7 DNA Electronics

(1)

3.3.15.8 Spintronics

(1)

3.4 MEMS and NEMS Division

100

(5)

3.4.1 Surface and Bulk Micromachining

100

(1)

3.4.2 Machining by Wet and Dry Etching Techniques

100

(1)

3.4.3 Deep Reactive-Ion Etching

101

(2)

3.4.4 Front- and Back-Side Mask Alignment

103

(1)

3.4.5 Multiple Wafer Bonding and Glass-Silicon Bonding

103

(1)

3.4.6 Wafer Lapping

103

(1)

3.4.7 Chemical Mechanical Polishing

103

(1)

3.4.8 Electroplating

104

(1)

3.4.9 LIGA Process

104

(1)

3.4.10 Micro-Injection Molding

104

(1)

3.4.11 Hot Embossing and Electroforming

105

(1)

3.4.12 Combination of MEMS/NEMS and CMOS Processes

105

(1)

3.5 Biochemistry Division

105

(5)

3.5.1 Surface Functionalization and Biofunctionalization of Nanomaterials

105

(1)

3.5.2 Immobilization of Biological Elements

106

(2)

3.5.3 Protocols for Attachment of Antibodies on Sensors

108

(1)

3.5.4 Functionalization of CNTs for Biological Applications

109

(1)

3.5.5 Water Solubility of Quantum Dots

109

(1)

3.5.6 Low Cytotoxicity Coatings

109

(1)

3.6 Chemistry Division

110

(1)

3.6.1 Nanoparticle Thin-Film Deposition

110

(1)

3.6.2 Polymer Coatings in Nano Gas Sensors

110

(1)

3.6.3 Metallic Nanoparticle Functionalization of Si Nanowires for Gas Sensing Applications

110

(1)

3.7 Nanosensor Characterization Division

110

(1)

3.8 Nanosensor Powering, Signal Processing, and Communication Division

110

(2)

3.8.1 Power Unit

111

(1)

3.8.1.1 Lithium Nanobatteries

111

(1)

3.8.1.2 Self-Powered Nanogenerators

111

(1)

3.8.1.3 Energy Harvesting from the Environment

111

(1)

3.8.1.4 Synthetic Chemical Batteries Based on Adenosine Triphosphate

111

(1)

3.8.2 Signal Processing Unit

111

(1)

3.8.3 Integrated Nanosensor Systems

112

(1)

3.8.4 Wireless Nanosensor Networks

112

(1)

3.9 Discussion and Conclusions

112

(5)

Review Exercises

112

(1)

References

113

(4)

Part III Physical Nanosensors

4 Mechanical Nanosensors

117

(34)

4.1 Introduction

117

(1)

4.2 Nanogram Mass Sensing by Quartz Crystal Microbalance

117

(3)

4.3 Attogram (10-18g) and Zeptogram (10-21g) Mass Sensing by MEMS/NEMS Resonators

120

(13)

4.3.1 Microcantilever Definitions and Theory

120

(5)

4.3.1.1 Resonance Frequency Formula

125

(4)

4.3.1.2 Deflection Formula

129

(1)

4.3.2 Energy Dissipation and Q-Factor of Cantilever

130

(1)

4.3.3 Noise of Cantilever and Its Mass Detection Limit

131

(1)

4.3.4 Doubly Clamped and Free-Free Beam Resonators

132

(1)

4.4 Electron Tunneling Displacement Nanosensor

133

(1)

4.5 Coulomb Blockade Electrometer-Based Nanosensor

134

(1)

4.5.1 Coulomb Blockade Effect

134

(1)

4.5.2 Comparison with Tunneling Sensors

135

(1)

4.6 Nanometer-Scale Displacement Sensing by Single-Electron Transistor

135

(1)

4.7 Magnetomotive Displacement Nanosensor

136

(1)

4.8 Piezoresistive and Piezoelectric Displacement Nanosensors

137

(1)

4.9 Optical Displacement Nanosensor

137

(1)

4.10 Femtonewton Force Sensors Using Doubly Clamped Suspended Carbon Nanotube Resonators

138

(2)

4.11 Suspended CNT Electromechanical Sensors for Displacement and Force

140

(2)

4.12 Membrane-Based CNT Electromechanical Pressure Sensor

142

(1)

4.13 Tunnel Effect Accelerometer

143

(2)

4.13.1 Principle of Motion Detection

143

(1)

4.13.2 Construction and Working

143

(1)

4.13.3 Micromachined Accelerometer

144

(1)

4.14 NEMS Accelerometer

145

(1)

4.15 Silicon Nanowire Accelerometer

145

(1)

4.16 CNT Flow Sensor for Ionic Solutions

146

(1)

4.17 Discussion and Conclusions

147

(4)

Review Exercises

147

(2)

References

149

(2)

5 Thermal Nanosensors

151

(22)

5.1 Introduction

151

(1)

5.2 Nanoscale Thermocouple Formed by Tungsten and Platinum Nanosized Strips

151

(1)

5.3 Resistive Thermal Nanosensor Fabricated by Focused-Ion-Beam Chemical-Vapor-Deposition (FIB-CVD)

152

(1)

5.4 Carbon "Nanowire-on-Diamond" Resistive Temperature Nanosensor

152

(1)

5.5 Carbon Nanotube Grown on Nickel Film as a Resistive Low-temperature (10--300 K) Nanosensor

152

(1)

5.6 Laterally Grown CNTs between Two Microelectrodes as a Resistive Temperature Nanosensor

153

(1)

5.7 Silicon Nanowire Temperature Nanosensors: Resistors and Diode Structures

154

(1)

5.8 Ratiometric Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Temperature Sensing

155

(2)

5.9 Er3+/Yb3+ Co-Doped Gd2O3 Nanophosphor as a Temperature Nanosensor, Using Fluorescence Intensity Ratio Technique

157

(2)

5.10 Optical Heating of Yb3+-Er3+ Co-Doped Fluoride Nanoparticles and Distant Temperature Sensing through Luminescence

159

(1)

5.11 Porphyrin-Containing Copolymer as a Thermochromic Nanosensor

159

(1)

5.12 Silicon-Micromachined Scanning Thermal Profiler (STP)

160

(1)

5.13 Superconducting Hot Electron Nanobolometers

161

(1)

5.14 Thermal Convective Accelerometer Using CNT Sensing Element

162

(1)

5.15 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Sensor for Airflow Measurement

163

(1)

5.16 Vacuum Pressure and Flow Velocity Sensors, Using Batch-Processed CNT Wall

163

(1)

5.17 Nanogap Pirani Gauge

164

(1)

5.18 Carbon Nanotube-Polymer Nanocomposite as a Conductivity Response Infrared Nanosensor

165

(1)

5.19 Nanocalorimetry

166

(2)

5.20 Discussion and Conclusions

168

(5)

Review Exercises

170

(1)

References

170

(3)

6 Optical Nanosensors

173

(34)

6.1 Introduction

173

(1)

6.2 Noble-Metal Nanoparticles With LSPR and UV-Visible Spectroscopy

174

(2)

6.3 Nanosensors Based on Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

176

(2)

6.4 Colloidal SPR Colorimetric Gold Nanoparticle Spectrophotometric Sensor

178

(3)

6.5 Fiber-Optic Nanosensors

181

(5)

6.5.1 Fabry-Perot Reflectometric Optochemical Nanosensor, Using Optical Fibers and SWCNTs

181

(3)

6.5.2 In-Fiber Nanocavity Sensor

184

(1)

6.5.3 Fiber-Optic Nanosensors for Probing Living Cells

185

(1)

6.6 Nanograting-Based Optical Accelerometer

186

(1)

6.7 Fluorescent pH-Sensitive Nanosensors

186

(2)

6.7.1 Renewable Glass Nanopipette with Fluorescent Dye Molecules

186

(1)

6.7.2 Ratiometric pH Nanosensor

187

(1)

6.7.3 Ph-Sensitive Microcapsules With Nanoparticle Incorporation in the Walls

188

(1)

6.8 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber and Fluorescent Nanosensors for Living Cell Studies

188

(1)

6.9 PEBBLE Nanosensors to Measure the Intracellular Environment

189

(3)

6.10 Quantum Dots as Fluorescent Labels

192

(3)

6.11 Quantum Dot FRET-Based Probes

195

(5)

6.11.1 QD-FRET Protein Sensor

197

(1)

6.11.2 QD-FRET Protease Sensor

197

(1)

6.11.3 QD-FRET Maltose Sensor

197

(1)

6.11.4 Sensor for Determining the Dissociation Constant (KJ between Rev and RRE

198

(2)

6.12 Electrochemiluminescent Nanosensors for Remote Detection

200

(1)

6.13 Crossed Zinc Oxide Nanorods As Resistive UV-Nanosensors

200

(2)

6.14 Discussion and Conclusions

202

(5)

Review Exercises

202

(1)

References

203

(4)

7 Magnetic Nanosensors

207

(32)

7.1 Introduction

207

(1)

7.2 Magnetoresistance Sensors

207

(7)

7.2.1 Ordinary Magnetoresistance: The Hall Effect

208

(1)

7.2.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance

208

(1)

7.2.3 Giant Magnetoresistance

208

(1)

7.2.3.1 Scientific Explanation of GMR

209

(4)

7.2.3.2 Simple Analogies of GMR

213

(1)

7.2.3.3 Optimizing Parameters

213

(1)

7.2.3.4 GMR Sensor Structures

213

(1)

7.3 Tunneling Magnetoresistance

214

(1)

7.4 Limitations, Advantages, and Applications of GMR and TMR Sensors

215

(1)

7.4.1 Shortcomings

215

(1)

7.4.2 Advantages

215

(1)

7.4.3 Applications

215

(1)

7.5 Magnetic Nanoparticle Probes for Studying Molecular Interactions

215

(7)

7.5.1 DNA Analysis

219

(1)

7.5.2 Protein Detection

220

(1)

7.5.3 Virus Detection

220

(1)

7.5.4 Telomerase Activity Analysis

221

(1)

7.6 Protease-Specific Nanosensors for MRI

222

(1)

7.7 Magnetic Relaxation Switch Immunosensors

223

(1)

7.8 Magneto Nanosensor Microarray Biochip

223

(8)

7.8.1 Rationale and Motivation

223

(1)

7.8.2 Sensor Choice, Design Considerations, Passivation, and Magnetic Nanotag Issues

224

(2)

7.8.3 Understanding Magnetic Array Operation

226

(1)

7.8.4 Influence of Reaction Conditions on the Sensor

227

(1)

7.8.5 DNA and Tumor Marker Detection

227

(2)

7.8.6 GMR-Based Detection System With Zeptomole (10-21 Mol) Sensitivity

229

(1)

7.8.7 Bead ARray Counter (BARC) Biosensor

230

(1)

7.9 Needle-Type SV-GMR Sensor for Biomedical Applications

231

(1)

7.10 Superconductive Magnetic Nanosensor

232

(1)

7.11 Electron Tunneling-Based Magnetic Field Sensor

232

(1)

7.12 Nanowire Magnetic Compass and Position Sensor

233

(1)

7.13 Discussion and Conclusions

234

(5)

Review Exercises

234

(1)

References

235

(4)

Part IV Chemical and Biological Nanosensors

8 Chemical Nanosensors

239

(28)

8.1 Introduction

239

(1)

8.2 Gas Sensors Based on Nanomaterials

239

(1)

8.3 Metallic Nanoparticle-Based Gas Sensors

240

(1)

8.4 Metal Oxide Gas Sensors

240

(9)

8.4.1 Sensing Mechanism of Metal Oxide Sensors

242

(2)

8.4.2 Sensitivity Controlling Parameters and the Influence of Heat Treatment

244

(4)

8.4.3 Effect of Additives on Sensor Response

248

(1)

8.5 Carbon Nanotube Gas Sensors

249

(4)

8.5.1 Gas-Sensing Properties of CNTs

249

(1)

8.5.2 Responses of SWCNTs and MWCNTs

250

(1)

8.5.3 Modification of CNTs

250

(1)

8.5.4 CNT-Based FET-Type Sensor

251

(1)

8.5.5 MWCNTs/SnO2 Ammonia Sensor

251

(1)

8.5.6 CNT-Based Acoustic Gas Sensor

252

(1)

8.6 Porous Silicon-Based Gas Sensor

253

(1)

8.7 Thin Organic Polymer Film-Based Gas Sensors

253

(1)

8.8 Electrospun Polymer Nanofibers as Humidity Sensors

253

(1)

8.9 Toward Large Nanosensor Arrays and Nanoelectronic Nose

254

(1)

8.10 CNT-, Nanowire- and Nanobelt-Based Chemical Nanosensors

255

(4)

8.10.1 CNT-Based ISFET for Nano pH Sensor

255

(1)

8.10.2 NW Nanosensor for pH Detection

255

(2)

8.10.3 ZnS/Silica Nanocable FET pH Sensor

257

(1)

8.10.4 Bridging Nanowire As Vapor Sensor

258

(1)

8.10.5 Palladium Functionalized Si NW H2 Sensor

258

(1)

8.10.6 Polymer-Functionalized Piezoelectric-FET Humidity Nanosensor

258

(1)

8.11 Optochemical Nanosensors

259

(3)

8.11.1 Low-Potential Quantum Dot ECL Sensor for Metal Ion

259

(1)

8.11.2 BSA-Activated CdTe QD Nanosensor for Sb3t Ion

260

(1)

8.11.3 Functionalized CdSe/ZnS QD Nanosensor for Hg(II) Ion

261

(1)

8.11.4 Marine Diatom Gas Sensors

262

(1)

8.12 Discussion and Conclusions

262

(5)

Review Exercises

262

(2)

References

264

(3)

9 Nanobiosensors

267

(42)

9.1 Introduction

267

(1)

9.2 Nanoparticle-Based Electrochemical Biosensors

267

(9)

9.2.1 Nitric Oxide Electrochemical Sensor

270

(1)

9.2.2 Determination of Dopamine, Uric Acid, and Ascorbic Acid

271

(1)

9.2.3 Detection of CO

271

(1)

9.2.4 Glucose Detection

272

(1)

9.2.5 Gold Nanoparticle DNA Biosensor

273

(2)

9.2.6 Monitoring Allergen-Antibody Reactions

275

(1)

9.2.7 Hepatitis B Immunosensor

275

(1)

9.2.8 Carcinoembryonic Antigen Detection

275

(1)

9.2.9 Escherichia coli Detection in Milk Samples

276

(1)

9.3 CNT-Based Electrochemical Biosensors

276

(9)

9.3.1 Oxidation of Dopamine

278

(3)

9.3.2 Direct Electrochemistry or Electrocatalysis of Catalase

281

(1)

9.3.3 CNT-Based Electrochemical DNA Biosensor

281

(1)

9.3.4 Glucose Biosensor

281

(2)

9.3.5 Cholesterol Biosensor

283

(1)

9.3.6 H2O2 Biosensor

284

(1)

9.4 Functionalization of CNTs for Biosensor Fabrication

285

(1)

9.5 QD (Quantum Dot)-Based Electrochemical Biosensors

285

(2)

9.5.1 Uric Acid Biosensor

285

(1)

9.5.2 Hydrogen Peroxide Biosensor

285

(1)

9.5.3 CdS Nanoparticles Modified Electrode for Glucose Detection

286

(1)

9.5.4 QD Light-Triggered Glucose Detection

286

(1)

9.6 Nanotube and Nanowire-Based FET Nanobiosensors

287

(2)

9.6.1 Nanotube versus Nanowire

287

(1)

9.6.2 Functionalization of SiNWs

287

(2)

9.6.3 DNA and Protein Detection

289

(1)

9.7 Cantilever-Based Nanobiosensors

289

(6)

9.7.1 Biofunctionalization of the Microcantilever Surface

291

(2)

9.7.2 Biosensing Applications

293

(2)

9.8 Optical Nanobiosensors

295

(5)

9.8.1 Aptamers

295

(2)

9.8.2 Aptamer-Modified Au Nanoparticles as a Colorimetric Adenosine Nanosensor

297

(1)

9.8.3 Aptamer-Based Multicolor Fluorescent Gold Nanoprobe for Simultaneous Adenosine, Potassium Ion, and Cocaine Detection

297

(1)

9.8.4 Aptamer-Capped QD as a Thrombin Nanosensor

298

(1)

9.8.5 QD Aptameric Cocaine Nanosensor

299

(1)

9.9 Biochips (or Microarrays)

300

(1)

9.10 Discussion and Conclusions

301

(8)

Review Exercises

301

(2)

References

303

(6)

Part V Emerging Applications of Nanosensors

10 Nanosensors for Societal Benefits

309

(56)

10.1 Air Pollutants

309

(1)

10.2 Nanosensors for Particulate Matter Detection

309

(2)

10.2.1 Cantilever-Based Airborne Nanoparticle Detector (CANTOR)

309

(1)

10.2.2 Nanomechanical Resonant Filter-Fiber

309

(1)

10.2.3 Aerosol Sensing by Voltage Modulation

309

(1)

10.2.4 MEMS-Based Particle Detection System

310

(1)

10.3 Nanosensors for Carbon Monoxide Detection

311

(2)

10.3.1 Au Nanoparticle-Based Miniature CO Detector

312

(1)

10.3.2 CuO Nanowire Sensor on Micro-Hotplate

312

(1)

10.3.3 ZnO Nanowall-Based Conductometric Sensor

312

(1)

10.3.4 ZnO NPs-Loaded 3D Reduced Graphene Oxide (ZnO/3D-rGO) Sensor

312

(1)

10.3.5 Europium-Doped Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles Thick-Film Sensor

312

(1)

10.3.6 Pt-decorated SnO2 Nanoparticles Sensor

313

(1)

10.4 Nanosensors for Sulfur Dioxide Detection

313

(1)

10.4.1 Tungsten Oxide Nanostructures-Based Sensor

313

(1)

10.4.2 SnO2 Thin-Film Sensor with Nanoclusters of Metal Oxide Modifiers/Catalysts

313

(1)

10.4.3 Fluorescence Nanoprobe

313

(1)

10.4.4 Niobium-Loaded Tungsten Oxide Film Sensor

313

(1)

10.4.5 Nickel Nanowall-Based Sensor

313

(1)

10.5 Nanosensors for Nitrogen Dioxide Detection

313

(1)

10.5.1 SnO2 Nanoribbon Sensor

313

(1)

10.5.2 Tris(hydroxymethyl) Aminomethane (THMA)-Capped ZnO Nanoparticle-Coated ZnO Nanowire Sensor

313

(1)

10.5.3 In2O3-Sensitized CuO-ZnO Nanoparticle Composite Film Sensor

313

(1)

10.5.4 UV-Activated, Pt-Decorated Single-Crystal ZnO Nanowire Sensor

313

(1)

10.6 Nanosensors for Ozone Detection

314

(1)

10.6.1 SnO2/SWCNT Hybrid Thin-Film Sensor

314

(1)

10.6.2 Nanocrystalline SiT1-xFexO3 (STF) Thin-Film Sensor

314

(1)

10.6.3 ZnO Nanoparticle Sensor

314

(1)

10.6.4 Pd-Decorated MWCNT Sensor

314

(1)

10.6.5 UV-Illuminated ZnO Nanocrystal Sensor

314

(1)

10.7 Nanosensors for VOC Detection

314

(2)

10.7.1 Chemiresistive Sensor Using Gold Nanoparticles

314

(1)

10.7.2 Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) Nanoparticle-Based Capacitive Sensor

315

(1)

10.7.3 Al-Doped ZnO Nanowire {(ZnO:AI)NW}Sensor

315

(1)

10.7.4 Nickel-Doped Tin Oxide Nanoparticle (Ni-SnO2 NP) Sensor for Formaldehyde

315

(1)

10.7.5 Palladium Nanoparticle (PdNP)/Nickel Oxide (NiO) Thin - Film/Palladium (Pd) Thin-Film Sensor for Formaldehyde

315

(1)

10.7.6 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Sensor With Polymer-Sensitive Film Containing Embedded Nanoparticles

315

(1)

10.7.7 Resorcinol-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Probe for Formaldehyde Detection

316

(1)

10.8 Nanosensors for Ammonia Detection

316

(1)

10.8.1 Polyaniline Nanoparticle Conductimetric Sensor

316

(1)

10.8.2 MoO3 Nanoparticle Gel-Coated Sensor

316

(1)

10.8.3 ZnO:Eu2+ Fluorescence Quenching Nanoparticle-Based Optical Sensor

316

(1)

10.8.4 Pt Nanoparticle (Pt NP)-Decorated WO, Sensor

316

(1)

10.9 Water Pollutants

317

(1)

10.10 Nanosensors for Detection of Escherichia coli 0157:H7

317

(5)

10.10.1 Magnetoelastic Sensor Amplified With Chitosan-Modified Fe3O4 Magnetic Nanoparticles (CMNPs)

317

(2)

10.10.2 Mercaptoethylamine (MEA)-Modified Gold Nanoparticle Sensor

319

(1)

10.10.3 Cysteine-Capped Gold Nanoparticle Sensor

319

(1)

10.10.4 Three Nanoparticles-Based Biosensor (Iron Oxide, Gold, and Lead Sulfide)

319

(1)

10.10.5 Magneto-Fluorescent Nanosensor (MfnS)

319

(2)

10.10.6 Signal-Off Impedimetric Nanosensor With a Sensitivity Enhancement by Captured Nanoparticles

321

(1)

10.10.7 An Impedimetric Biosensor for E. coli 0157:H7 Based on the Use of Self-Assembled Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) and Protein G-Thiol (PrG-Thiol) Scaffold

321

(1)

10.10.8 Gold Nanoparticles Surface Plasmon Resonance (AuNP SPR) Chip

321

(1)

10.10.9 Microfluidic Nanosensor Working on Aggregation of Gold Nanoparticles and Imaging by Smartphone

321

(1)

10.11 Nanosensors for Detection of Vibrio cholerae and Cholera Toxin

322

(2)

10.11.1 Lactose-Stabilized Gold Nanoparticles

322

(1)

10.11.2 Ssdna/Nanostructured MgO (nMgO)/Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Bioelectrode

323

(1)

10.11.3 Nanostructured MgO (nMgO) Photoluminescence Sensor

323

(1)

10.11.4 Lyophilized Gold Nanoparticle/Polystyrene-Co-Acrylic Acid-Based Genosensor

323

(1)

10.11.5 Polystyrene-co-Acrylic Acid (PSA) Latex Nanospheres

324

(1)

10.11.6 Graphene Nanosheet Bioelectrode with Lipid Film Containing Ganglioside GM1 Receptor of Cholera Toxin

324

(1)

10.12 Nanosensors for Detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

324

(2)

10.12.1 Probe-Modified Magnetic Nanoparticles-Based Chemiluminescent Sensor

324

(1)

10.12.2 Reduced Graphene Electrode Decorated with Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)

325

(1)

10.12.3 Polyaniline(PANI)/Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Decorated Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Electrode

325

(1)

10.13 Nanosensors for Detection of Legionella pneumophila

326

(1)

10.13.1 ZnO Nanorod (ZnO-NR) Matrix-Based Immunosensor

326

(1)

10.13.2 Azimuthally-Controlled Gold Grating-Coupling Surface Plasmon Resonance (GC-SPR) Platform

326

(1)

10.14 Nanosensors for Detection of Mercury Ions

327

(1)

10.14.1 Thymine Derivative (N-T) Decorated Gold Nanoparticle Sensor

327

(1)

10.14.2 Smartphone-Based Microwell Reader (MR S-phone) AuNP-Aptamer Colorimetric Sensor

327

(1)

10.14.3 Starch-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle-Based Colorimetric Sensor

327

(1)

10.14.4 Chitosan-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle (Chi-AgNP)-Based Colorimetric Sensor

328

(1)

10.15 Nanosensors for Detection of Lead Ions

328

(3)

10.15.1 Glutathione (GSH)-Stabilized Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP) Sensor

328

(2)

10.15.2 Maleic acid (MA)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor

330

(1)

10.15.3 Label-Free Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) in the Presence of Glutathione (GSH)

330

(1)

10.15.4 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Conjugated with Thioctic Acid (TA) and Fluorescent Dansyl Hydrazine (DNS) Molecules

331

(1)

10.15.5 Valine-Capped Gold Nanoparticle Sensor

331

(1)

10.15.6 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)-Stabilized Colloidal Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs) in the Presence of Dithizone

331

(1)

10.15.7 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Graphene (GR)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE)

331

(1)

10.16 Nanosensors for Detection of As(III) ions

331

(2)

10.16.1 Portable Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) System

331

(1)

10.16.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Nanosensor

331

(1)

10.16.3 FePt Bimetallic Nanoparticle (FePt-NP) Sensor

332

(1)

10.16.4 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) for Co-Detection of As(III) and Se(IV)

332

(1)

10.16.5 Silver Nanoparticle-Modified Gold Electrode

332

(1)

10.16.6 Carbon Nanoparticle (CNP)/Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) Aptasensor

333

(1)

10.16.7 Gold Nanostructured Electrode on a Gold Foil (Au/GNE)

333

(1)

10.16.8 Bimetallic Nanoparticle (NP) and [ Bimetallic NP + Polyaniline (PANI)] Composite-Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE)

333

(1)

10.16.9 Ranolazine (Rano)-Functionalized Copper Nanoparticles (CuNPs)

333

(1)

10.17 Nanosensors for Detection of Cr(VI) Ions

333

(1)

10.17.1 Colloidal Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Probe-Based Immunochromatographic Sensor

333

(1)

10.17.2 Amyloid-Fibril-Based Sensor

333

(1)

10.17.3 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Decorated Titanium Dioxide Nanotubes (TiO2NTs) on a Ti Substrate

334

(1)

10.18 Nanosensors for Detection of Cd2+ ions

334

(4)

10.18.1 Gold Nanoparticle Amalgam (AuNPA)-Modified Screen-Printed Electrode (SPE)

334

(1)

10.18.2 Turn-On Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Sensor

334

(1)

10.18.3 Thioglycerol (TG)-Capped CdSe Quantum Dots (QDs)

335

(1)

10.18.4 CdTe Quantum (CdTe QD) Dot-Based Hybrid Probe

335

(1)

10.18.5 Aptamer-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor

336

(2)

10.19 Nanosensors for Detection of Cu2+ ions

338

(1)

10.19.1 Azide and Terminal Alkyne-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor

338

(1)

10.19.2 Cadmium Sulfide Nanoparticle (CdS NP)-Gold Quantum Dot (Au QD) Sensor

339

(1)

10.19.3 Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Regulator (MarR)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP) Sensor

339

(1)

10.19.4 Casein Peptide-Functionalized Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP) Sensor

339

(1)

10.20 Nanosensors for Detection of Pesticides

339

(12)

10.20.1 DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

339

(2)

10.20.2 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D)

341

(1)

10.20.3 Carbofuran (CBF)

341

(1)

10.20.3.1 Amperometric Immunosensor

341

(2)

10.20.3.2 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (MIP)-Reduced Graphene Oxide and Gold Nanoparticle (rGO@AuNP)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE)

343

(1)

10.20.3.3 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Based Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

344

(1)

10.20.4 Methomyl

344

(1)

10.20.5 Dimethoate

344

(1)

10.20.6 Atrazine

344

(1)

10.20.6.1 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Modified Gold (Au) Electrode

344

(1)

10.20.6.2 Cysteamine (Cys)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)

345

(1)

10.20.6.3 Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Quantum Dot-Based Luminescent Probe

346

(1)

10.20.7 Paraoxon-Ethyl

346

(1)

10.20.8 Acetamiprid

347

(1)

10.20.9 Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), Perchlorobenzene

347

(2)

10.20.10 Malathion (MLT): Diethyl 2-[ (dimethoxyphosphorothioyl)sulfanyl]butanedioate

349

(1)

10.20.11 Dithiocarbamate (DTC) Pesticide Group

349

(2)

10.21 Discussion and Conclusions

351

(14)

10.21.1 Particulate Matter

351

(1)

10.21.2 Gases

351

(1)

10.21.3 Pathogens

351

(1)

10.21.4 Metals

351

(1)

10.21.5 Pesticides

352

(1)

Review Exercises

352

(9)

References

361

(4)

11 Nanosensors for Industrial Applications

365

(46)

11.1 Nanosensors for Detection of Food-Borne Pathogenic Bacteria

365

(5)

11.1.1 Salmonella typhimurium

365

(1)

11.1.1.1 DNA Aptamers and Magnetic Nanoparticle (MNP)-Based Colorimetric Sensor

365

(1)

11.1.1.2 Strip Sensor Using Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)-Labeled Genus-Specific Anti-Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Monoclonal Antibody (mAb)

365

(1)

11.1.2 Clostridium perfringens

366

(1)

11.1.3 Listeria monocytogenes

367

(1)

11.1.3.1 Immunomagnetic Nanoparticles (IMNPs) with Microfluidic Chip and Interdigitated Microelectrodes

368

(1)

11.1.3.2 Gold Nanoparticle (AuNP)/DNA Colorimetric Probe Assay

368

(1)

11.1.4 Campylobacter jejuni

369

(1)

11.1.5 Yersinia enterocolitica

369

(1)

11.2 Nanosensors for Detection of Food-Borne Toxins

370

(4)

11.2.1 Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotype A (BoNT/A)

370

(1)

11.2.1.1 Gold Nanodendrite (AuND)/Chitosan Nanoparticle (CSNP)-Modified Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE) for Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotype A (BoNT/A)

371

(1)

11.2.1.2 Peptide-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)-Based Colorimetric Assay for Botulinum Serotype A Light Chain (BoLcA)

371

(2)

11.2.2 Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB)

373

(1)

11.3 Nanosensors for Cancer Cell/Biomarker Detection

374

(7)

11.3.1 Breast Cancer Cell MCF-7

375

(1)

11.3.2 HER2, A Medical Sign of Breast Cancer

376

(1)

11.3.3 Serum Amyloid A1 (SAA1) Antigen, a Lung-Cancer-Specific Biomarker

376

(2)

11.3.4 Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA), a Biomarker for Prostate Cancer

378

(1)

11.3.5 Mirna-106a, the Biomarker of Gastric Cancer

378

(2)

11.3.6 Colorectal Carcinoma Cell

380

(1)

11.3.7 Cluster of Differentiation 10 (CD10) Antigen, the Common Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Antigen

380

(1)

11.4 Nanosensors for Detection of Infectious Disease Indicators

381

(12)

11.4.1 IgG Antibodies to Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (α-HbsAg IgG Antibodies)

381

(2)

11.4.2 Dengue-IRNA

383

(1)

11.4.3 Japanese Encaphilitis Virus (JEV) Antigen

383

(2)

11.4.4 HIV-1 p24 Antigen

385

(1)

11.4.5 Zika Virus (ZIKV)

386

(2)

11.4.6 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2

388

(1)

11.4.7 Pneumococcus or Streptococcus pneumoniae

388

(1)

11.4.8 Acid-Fast Bacilli (AFB)

388

(1)

11.4.9 Streptococcus pyogenes Single-Stranded Genomic-DNA (5. pyogenes ssg-DNA)

389

(2)

11.4.10 Plasmodium falciparum Heat-Shock Protein 70 (PfHsp70)

391

(2)

11.5 Nanosensors for Automotive, Aerospace, and Consumer Applications

393

(11)

11.5.1 Strain/Pressure Sensors

393

(1)

11.5.1.1 Polymer-Metallic Nanoparticles Composite Pressure Sensor

393

(2)

11.5.1.2 Percolative Pd Nanoparticle (PdNP) Array-Based Pressure Sensor

395

(1)

11.5.1.3 Silver Nanoparticle (AgNP)/Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Strain/Pressure Sensor

396

(1)

11.5.1.4 Polyacrylamide (PAAm)/Gold nanoparticle (AuNP) Pressure Sensor

397

(2)

11.5.2 Acoustic Vibration Sensor

399

(1)

11.5.3 Acceleration Sensor

399

(1)

11.5.4 Orientation, Angular Rate, or Angle Sensors

399

(1)

11.5.4.1 CNT Field-Emission Nano Gyroscope

399

(2)

11.5.4.2 Magnetic Nanoparticles-Based Gyroscopic Sensor

401

(1)

11.5.5 Ultrasound Sensor

401

(1)

11.5.6 Magnetic Field Sensor

402

(1)

11.5.6.1 Nanoparticle Core-Based Fluxgate Magnetometer

403

(1)

11.5.6.2 Magnetic Nanoparticle (MNP)-Functionalized Magnetometer

403

(1)

11.6 Discussion and Conclusions

404

(7)

11.6.1 Pathogens

404

(1)

11.6.2 Toxins

404

(1)

11.6.3 Cancer

404

(2)

11.6.4 Infectious Diseases

406

(1)

11.6.5 Automotive, Aerospace, and Consumer Applications

406

(1)

Review Exercises

406

(3)

References

409

(2)

12 Nanosensors for Homeland Security

411

(56)

12.1 Necessity of Nanosensors for Trace Explosive Detection

411

(1)

12.2 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) Nanosensors

411

(7)

12.2.1 Curcumin Nanomaterials Surface Energy Transfer (NSET) Probe

411

(1)

12.2.2 Amine-Functionalized Silica Nanoparticles (SiOj-NHj) Colorimetric Sensor

411

(1)

12.2.3 Amine-Modined Gold@Silver Nanoparticles-Based Colorimetric Paper Sensor

411

(1)

12.2.4 Polyethylenimine (PEI)-Capped Downconverting P-NaYF4:Gd3+,Tb3t@PEI Nanophosphor Luminescence Sensor

412

(1)

12.2.5 Janus Amine-Modified Upconverting NaYF4:Yb3+/Er3+ Nanoparticle (UCNP) Micromotor-Based On-Off Luminescence Sensor

413

(2)

12.2.6 AgInS2 (AIS) Quantum Dot (QD) Fluorometric Probe

415

(1)

12.2.7 TNT Recognition Peptide Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) Hybrid Anchored Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Chip

415

(1)

12.2.8 Non-Imprinted and Molecularly Imprinted Bis-Aniline-Cross-Linked Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) Composite/Gold Layer for Surface Plasmon Resonance, and Related Sensors

415

(3)

12.3 TNT/Tetryl (Tetranitro-N-methylamine) Nanosensors

418

(1)

12.3.1 Diaminocyclohexane (DACH)-Functionalized/Thioglycolic Acid (TGA)-Modified Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for TNT/Tetryl

418

(1)

12.3.2 Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) Surfactant Stabilized/Diethyldithiocarbamate-Functi onalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for TNT/Tetryl

418

(1)

12.4 Picric Acid Nanosensors

418

(4)

12.4.1 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanopeanuts-Modified Screen-Printed Electrode (SPE)

418

(1)

12.4.2 Nanostructured Cuprous Oxide (Cu2O)-Coated Screen-Printed Electrode

418

(1)

12.4.3 β-Cyclodextrin-Functionalized Reduced Graphene Oxide (rGO) Sensor

418

(3)

12.4.4 Conjugated Polymer Nanoparticles (CPNPs) Fluorescence/Current Response Sensor

421

(1)

12.4.5 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Using Hydrophobic Silver Nanopillar Substrates

421

(1)

12.5 Nanosensors for 1,3,5-Trinitro-1,3,5-Triazacyclohexane (RDX) and Other Explosives

422

(3)

12.5.1 Gold Nanoparticles Substrate for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) Detection by SERS

422

(1)

12.5.2 4-Aminothiophenol (4-ATP)-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticle Colorimetric Sensor for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine)/HMX(Octahydro-1,3,5,7-Tetranitro-1,3,5,7-Tetrazocine)

423

(1)

12.5.3 Cadmium Sulfide-Diphenylamine (CdS QD-DPA) FRET-Based Fluorescence Sensor for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine)/PETN (Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate)

423

(1)

12.5.4 Gold Nanoparticles/Nitroenergetic Memory-Poly(Carbazole-Aniline) P(Cz-co-ANI) Film-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode (GCE) for RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), TNT (2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene), DNT (2,4-Dinitrotoluene), and HMX (Octahydro-1,3,5,7-Tetranitro-1,3,5,7-Tetrazocine) Detection

424

(1)

12.6 Nanosensor Requirements for Detection of Biothreat Agents

425

(1)

12.7 Anthrax Spore Nanosensors

425

(2)

12.7.1 Europium Nanoparticle (Eu+ NP) Fluorescence Immunoassay (ENIA) for Bacillus anthracis Protective Antigen

425

(2)

12.7.2 Gold Nanoparticle-Amplified DNA Probe-Functionalized Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) Biosensor for B. Anthracis at Gene Level

427

(1)

12.8 Rapid Screening Lateral Flow Plague Bacterium (Yersinia pestis) Nanosensor

427

(3)

12.9 Francisella tularensis Bacterium Nanosensors

430

(2)

12.9.1 Gold Nanoparticle Signal Enhancement-Based Quartz Crystal Microbalance Biosensor and Gold Nanoparticle Absorbance Biosensor

430

(1)

12.9.2 Detection Antibody and Quantum Dots Decorated Apoferritin Nanoprobe

430

(2)

12.10 Brucellosis Bacterium (Brucella) Nanosensors

432

(2)

12.10.1 Gold Nanoparticle-Modified Disposable Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE) Immunosensor for Brucella melitensis

432

(1)

12.10.2 Oligonucleotide-Activated Gold Nanoparticle (Oligo-AuNP) Colorimetric Probe for Brucella Abortus

432

(1)

12.10.3 Colored Silica Nanoparticles Colorimetric Immunoassay for Brucella abortus

433

(1)

12.11 Oligonucleotide/Gold Nanoparticles/Magnetic Beads-Based Smallpox Virus (Variola) Colorimetric Sensor

434

(2)

12.12 Ebola Virus (EBOV) Nanosensors

436

(4)

12.12.1 Reduced Graphene Oxide-Based Field Effect Transistor (FET)

436

(1)

12.12.2 Bio-Memristor for Ebola VP40 Matrix Protein Detection

437

(2)

12.12.3 3-D Plasmonic Nanoantenna Sensor

439

(1)

12.13 Ricin Toxin Nanosensors

440

(5)

12.13.1 Silver Enhancement Immunoassay with Interdigitated Array Microelectrodes (IDAMs)

440

(3)

12.13.2 Modified Bio-Barcode Assay (BCA)

443

(1)

12.13.3 Electroluminescence Immunosensor

443

(2)

12.14 Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB) Toxin Nanosensors

445

(5)

12.14.1 SEB Detection Through Hydrogen Evolution Inhibition by Enzymatic Deposition of Metallic Copper on Platinum Nanoparticles (PtNPs)-Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode

445

(1)

12.14.2 4-Nitrothiophenol (4-NTP)-Encoded Gold Nanoparticle Core/Silver Shell (AuNP@Ag)-Based SERS Immunosensor

446

(1)

12.14.3 Aptamer Recognition Element and Gold Nanoparticle Color Indicator-Based Assay

447

(3)

12.15 Anatoxin Nanosensors

450

(3)

12.15.1 Polyaniline (PANI) Nanofibers-Gold Nanoparticles Composite-Based Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Disk Electrode for A FBI

450

(1)

12.15.2 Gold Nanodots (AuNDs)/Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanosheets/Indium Tin Oxide Substrate for Raman Spectroscopy and Electrochemical Measurements for AFB1

451

(1)

12.15.3 AFM1 Aptamer-Triggered and DNA-Fueled Signal-On Fluorescence Sensor for AFM1

451

(2)

12.16 Discussion and Conclusions

453

(14)

12.16.1 Nanosensors for Explosives

453

(1)

12.16.1.1 TNT

453

(1)

12.16.1.2 TNTTetryl

454

(1)

12.16.1.3 Picric Acid

454

(1)

12.16.1.4 RDX/Other Explosives

455

(1)

12.16.2 Nanosensors for Biothreat Agents

455

(1)

Review Exercises

456

(6)

References

462

(5)

Part VI Powering, Networking, and Trends of Nanosensors

13 Nanogenerators and Self-Powered Nanosensors

467

(26)

13.1 Devising Ways to Get Rid of Environment-Devastating Batteries

467

(1)

13.1.1 Vibration: The Abundant Energy Source in the Environment

467

(1)

13.1.2 Phenomena for Harvesting Vibrational Energy: Tribo- and Piezoelectricity

467

(1)

13.1.3 Role of Nanotechnology in Energy Harvesting

468

(1)

13.1.4 Other Energy Sources: Do Not Overlook Light and Heat!

468

(1)

13.2 Output Current of Tribo/Piezoelectric Nanogenerators as the Outcome of Second Term in Maxwell's Displacement Current

468

(2)

13.2.1 Principle of TENG

468

(2)

13.2.2 Principle of PENG

470

(1)

13.3 Triboelectricity-Powered Nanosensors

470

(9)

13.3.1 TENG Made From Micropatterned Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Membrane/Ag Nanoparticles and Ag Nanowires Composite Covered Aluminum Foil as a Static/Dynamic Pressure Nanosensor

470

(2)

13.3.2 Electrolytic Solution/Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene (FEP) Film TENG Nanosensor for pH Measurement

472

(2)

13.3.3 Ethanol Nanosensor Using Dual-Mode TENG: Water/TiO2 Nanomaterial TENG and SiO2 Nanoparticles (SiO2 NPs)/Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) TENG

474

(2)

13.3.4 Dopamine Nanosensor Using Al/PTFE with Nanoparticle Array TENG

476

(1)

13.3.5 Mercury Ion Nanosensor Using Au Film with Au Nanoparticles/PDMS TENG

477

(2)

13.4 Piezoelectricity-Powered Nanosensors

479

(8)

13.4.1 ZnO Nanowire PENG as a Pressure/Speed Nanosensor

479

(2)

13.4.2 UV and pH Nanosensors with ZnO Nanowire PENG

481

(3)

13.4.3 CNT Hg2+ Ion Nanosensor with ZnO Nanowire PENG

484

(1)

13.4.4 Smelling Electronic Skin (e-Skin) with ZnO Nanowire PENG

485

(2)

13.5 Miscellaneous Powered Nanosensors

487

(1)

13.5.1 Photovoltaic Effect-Powered H2S Nanosensor Using P-SWCNTs/N-Si Heterojunction

487

(1)

13.5.2 Thermoelectricity-Powered Temperature Nanosensor Using Ag2Te Nanowires/Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythi ophene):Poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOTPSS) Composite

487

(1)

13.6 Discussion and Conclusions

488

(5)

Review Exercises

489

(2)

References

491

(2)

14 Wireless Nanosensor Networks and IoNT

493

(18)

14.1 Evolution of Wireless Nanosensor Concept

493

(1)

14.2 Promising Communication Approaches for Nanonetworking

493

(1)

14.3 Molecular Communication (MC)

493

(2)

14.3.1 A Common Natural Phenomenon

493

(1)

14.3.2 Steps in Molecular Communication

493

(2)

14.3.3 Advantages of MC

495

(1)

14.3.4 Difficulties of MC

495

(1)

14.4 Electromagnetic Communication (EMC)

495

(2)

14.5 Envisaged Electromagnetic Integrated Nanosensor Module

497

(5)

14.5.1 Nanosensor Unit

497

(1)

14.5.2 Nanoactuation Unit

497

(1)

14.5.3 Power Unit

497

(2)

14.5.4 Nanoprocessor Unit

499

(1)

14.5.5 Nanomemory Unit

499

(1)

14.5.6 Nanoantenna

500

(1)

14.5.7 Nano Transceiver

500

(1)

14.5.8 Alternative Nanotube Electromechanical Nano Transceiver

501

(1)

14.6 WNNs Formation Using EMC Nanosensor Modules: The WNN Architecture

502

(2)

14.7 Frequency Bands of Electromagnetic WNN Operation

504

(1)

14.7.1 THz Channel Model for Intrabody WNNs

505

(1)

14.7.2 Channel Capacity for WNNs

505

(1)

14.7.3 Multi-Path Fading

505

(1)

14.8 Modulation Techniques for Electromagnetic WNNs

505

(1)

505

(1)

14.8.2 Symbol Rate Hopping (SRH)-TSOOK Modulation Scheme

506

(1)

14.9 Channel Sharing Protocol in WNN

506

(1)

14.10 Information Routing in WNNs

506

(1)

14.10.1 Multi-Hop Routing

506

(1)

14.10.2 Sensing-Aware Information Routing: The Cross-Layer Protocol

506

(1)

14.11 Failure Mechanisms and Reliability Issues of WNNs

506

(1)

14.12 Internet of Nano Things (IoNT): The Nanomachine

507

(1)

14.13 Discussion and Conclusions

507

(4)

Review Exercises

508

(1)

References

508

(3)

15 Overview and Future Trends of Nanosensors

511

(16)

15.1 Introduction

511

(1)

15.1.1 Interfacing Nanosensors with Human Beings

511

(1)

15.1.2 Three Main Types of Nanosensors

511

(1)

15.1.3 Using the Response Properties of the Same Nanomaterial in Different Types of Nanosensors

511

(1)

15.1.4 Nanosensor Science, Engineering, and Technology: Three Interrelated Disciplines

511

(1)

15.1.5 Scope of the
Chapter

512

(1)

15.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscope

512

(1)

15.3 Atomic Force Microscope

512

(1)

15.4 Mechanical Nanosensors

512

(2)

15.5 Thermal Nanosensors

514

(1)

15.6 Optical Nanosensors

515

(1)

15.7 Magnetic Nanosensors

516

(1)

15.8 Chemical Nanosensors

517

(1)

15.9 Nanobiosensors

518

(1)

15.10 Nanosensor Fabrication Aspects

519

(1)

15.11 In Vivo Nanosensor Problems

520

(1)

15.12 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Biosensors

520

(1)

15.13 Applications Perspectives of Nanosensors

521

(1)

15.13.1 Nanosensors for Societal Benefits

521

(1)

15.13.2 Nanosensors for Industrial Applications

521

(1)

15.13.3 Nanosensors for Homeland Security

521

(1)

15.14 Interfacing Issues for Nanosensors: Power Consumption and Sample Delivery Problems

521

(1)

15.15 Depletion-Mediated Piezoelectric Actuation for NEMS

522

(1)

15.16 Batteryless Nanosensors

522

(1)

15.17 Networking Nanosensors Wirelessly

522

(1)

15.18 Discussion and Conclusions

523

(4)

Review Exercises

523

(1)

References

524

(3)

Index

527

Vinod Kumar Khanna, Ph.D is a retired Chief Scientist from the CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, Pilani (Rajasthan), India, and a former Professor at the Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), India. He has worked for more than 37 years on the design, fabrication and characterization of semiconductor devices and micro/nanoelectronic sensors. He has published 16 books, 6 chapters in edited books, and 192 research papers in refereed journals and conference proceedings. He also has 5 patents to his name.

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