About the authors |
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xxi | |
Preface |
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xxiii | |
Acknowledgements |
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xxv | |
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1 | (4) |
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1 | (1) |
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1 | (1) |
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2 | (1) |
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2 | (1) |
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2 | (3) |
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2 Transmission line fundamentals |
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5 | (74) |
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5 | (1) |
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2.2 Classification of lines |
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5 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (12) |
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2.5.1 Inductance of a conductor due to internal flux linkage |
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6 | (3) |
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2.5.2 Inductance of a conductor due to external flux linkage |
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9 | (2) |
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2.5.3 Total inductance of a conductor |
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11 | (1) |
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2.5.4 Inductance of three-phase transmission line having three conductors placed symmetrically |
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11 | (1) |
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2.5.5 Limitation of three-phase three conductors placed unsymmetrically |
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12 | (1) |
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13 | (1) |
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2.5.7 Determination of inductance of three-phase transmission line with three unsymmetrical but transposed wires |
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14 | (2) |
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2.5.8 Geometrical mean distance |
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16 | (1) |
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2.5.9 Geometrical mean radius |
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17 | (1) |
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2.5.10 Inductance in terms of GMD and GMR |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (2) |
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2.6.1 Skin effect increases overall loss |
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18 | (2) |
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20 | (1) |
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2.8 Method of determination of effective resistance |
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20 | (1) |
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20 | (8) |
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2.9.1 Capacitance of a single-phase two-wire transmission line |
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20 | (2) |
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2.9.2 Determination of capacitance of three-phase transmission line with three wires placed symmetrically |
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22 | (2) |
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2.9.3 Determination of capacitance of three-phase transmission line with three unsymmetrical but transposed wires |
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24 | (4) |
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28 | (1) |
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2.11 Short transmission line |
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29 | (4) |
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2.11.1 Model of short transmission line |
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29 | (1) |
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2.11.2 Regulation of short transmission line |
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29 | (2) |
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2.11.3 Transmission (ABCD) parameters |
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31 | (1) |
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2.11.4 Transmission parameters of short transmission line |
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32 | (1) |
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2.11.5 Symmetry and reciprocity |
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33 | (1) |
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2.12 Medium transmission line |
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33 | (1) |
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2.12.1 Model of medium transmission line |
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33 | (1) |
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2.12.2 Transmission parameters of medium transmission line |
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33 | (1) |
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2.12.3 Symmetry and reciprocity |
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34 | (1) |
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2.13 Long transmission line |
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34 | (6) |
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2.13.1 Model of long transmission line |
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34 | (1) |
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2.13.2 Transmission parameters of long transmission line |
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35 | (2) |
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2.13.3 Symmetry and reciprocity |
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37 | (1) |
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2.13.4 Characteristic impedance |
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37 | (1) |
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2.13.5 Propagation constant |
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38 | (1) |
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2.13.6 Image impedance or surge impedance |
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38 | (1) |
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2.13.7 Image impedance loading |
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39 | (1) |
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39 | (1) |
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2.14 Comparison with AC overhead lines |
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40 | (2) |
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2.14.1 AC lines versus DC lines |
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40 | (1) |
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2.14.2 Overhead lines versus underground lines |
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41 | (1) |
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42 | (1) |
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42 | (1) |
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2.17 Major sinks of reactive power |
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43 | (1) |
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2.18 Major sources of reactive power |
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43 | (1) |
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2.19 Voltage control centres |
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44 | (1) |
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2.20 Major voltage control techniques or equipment |
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44 | (1) |
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2.21 Excitation system at generating station |
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44 | (4) |
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45 | (1) |
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2.21.2 Main exciter--pilot exciter |
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46 | (1) |
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2.21.3 Rectifier as an exciter |
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47 | (1) |
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2.21.4 AC exciter with a rectifier |
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47 | (1) |
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2.21.5 AC exciter--pilot exciter with rectifier |
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48 | (1) |
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2.22 Tap changing transformer |
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48 | (6) |
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2.22.1 Position of high-voltage winding |
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48 | (2) |
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2.22.2 Transformer operation |
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50 | (3) |
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2.22.3 Off- and on-load tap changing |
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53 | (1) |
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2.22.4 Location of tapping |
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54 | (1) |
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54 | (2) |
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2.24 I--V Characteristics without voltage control |
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56 | (1) |
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2.25 I--V Characteristics with ideal voltage control |
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56 | (1) |
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2.26 P--V Characteristics |
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56 | (3) |
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58 | (1) |
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2.26.2 Loading with unity power factor |
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58 | (1) |
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2.26.3 Loading with lagging power factor |
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58 | (1) |
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2.26.4 Loading with leading power factor |
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59 | (1) |
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2.27 Voltage, power and impedance |
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59 | (1) |
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2.28 Synchronous condenser |
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60 | (2) |
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62 | (1) |
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62 | (1) |
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2.31 Factors of power transmission capacity |
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63 | (1) |
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2.31.1 Parallel power transmission |
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63 | (1) |
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2.31.2 High-voltage DC (HVDC) power transmission |
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63 | (1) |
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2.31.3 Flexible AC power transmission |
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63 | (1) |
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2.32 Flexible AC transmission system |
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63 | (13) |
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2.32.1 Power and reactance |
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64 | (1) |
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2.32.2 Main features of FACTS |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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2.32.4 Classification of FACTS devices |
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66 | (1) |
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66 | (2) |
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68 | (6) |
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2.32.7 Series-series controller |
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74 | (1) |
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2.32.8 Series-shunt controller |
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75 | (1) |
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2.33 Static phase shifter |
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76 | (1) |
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2.34 FACTS and solar-wind hybrid grid |
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76 | (1) |
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77 | (1) |
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77 | (2) |
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78 | (1) |
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3 Line support, foundation and mechanical sag |
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79 | (58) |
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79 | (1) |
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3.2 Components of overhead lines |
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79 | (1) |
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3.3 Design aspects of distribution system |
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80 | (23) |
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3.3.1 Basic consideration |
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80 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Classification of line support used in distribution system |
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80 | (15) |
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3.3.3 Conductor positions for pole support |
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95 | (1) |
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3.3.4 Guard wire in distribution system |
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96 | (2) |
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3.3.5 Guy in distribution system |
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98 | (1) |
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99 | (2) |
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3.3.7 Jumper in distribution system |
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101 | (1) |
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3.3.8 Foundation of distribution poles |
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102 | (1) |
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3.4 Design aspects in transmission system |
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103 | (13) |
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3.4.1 Line support used in transmission system |
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103 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Classification of tower |
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103 | (2) |
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3.4.3 Materials used in tower |
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105 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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3.4.5 Different parts of tower |
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106 | (4) |
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110 | (1) |
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3.4.7 Earth wire or sky wire |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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111 | (1) |
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3.4.13 Different shapes of tower |
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111 | (2) |
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3.4.14 Support for HVDC lines |
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113 | (1) |
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3.4.15 Conductor positions for tower |
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114 | (2) |
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116 | (13) |
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3.5.1 Soil classification |
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116 | (3) |
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3.5.2 Some important terminology |
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119 | (1) |
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3.5.3 Classification of foundation for electrical support |
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120 | (2) |
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3.5.4 Foundation without base enlargement |
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122 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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3.5.7 Stepped block foundation |
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123 | (2) |
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3.5.8 Pad and chimney foundation |
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125 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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3.5.10 Foundation of guyed tower and guyed wire |
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126 | (1) |
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3.5.11 Selection of type of foundation |
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126 | (1) |
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3.5.12 Sample foundation of a tower of 765 kV transmission line |
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127 | (1) |
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128 | (1) |
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3.6 Mechanical sag and tension |
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129 | (6) |
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3.6.1 Determination of symmetrical sag |
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129 | (3) |
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132 | (1) |
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133 | (1) |
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3.6.4 Effect of ice on sag |
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134 | (1) |
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3.6.5 Effect of wind on sag |
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134 | (1) |
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3.6.6 Effect of wind and ice on sag |
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134 | (1) |
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3.6.7 Sag when supports are at unequal level |
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135 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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135 | (2) |
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135 | (2) |
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137 | (12) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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4.3 Voltage in a single-phase two-wire transmission line |
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138 | (1) |
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4.4 Electric stress in a single-phase two-wire transmission line |
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139 | (3) |
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141 | (1) |
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142 | (1) |
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143 | (2) |
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143 | (1) |
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143 | (1) |
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143 | (1) |
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143 | (1) |
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4.6.5 Snow or hail effect |
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144 | (1) |
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4.6.6 Atmospheric temperature |
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144 | (1) |
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144 | (1) |
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4.7 Methods of reducing corona |
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145 | (1) |
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145 | (1) |
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145 | (1) |
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4.10 Advantages of corona |
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145 | (1) |
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4.11 Corona in HVDC lines |
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146 | (1) |
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4.12 Research advancement |
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146 | (1) |
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146 | (1) |
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146 | (3) |
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147 | (2) |
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5 Overhead line insulator |
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149 | (32) |
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149 | (1) |
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5.2 Overhead line insulator |
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149 | (1) |
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5.3 Common properties of line insulator |
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149 | (1) |
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5.4 Material of overhead line insulators |
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150 | (1) |
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150 | (1) |
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151 | (1) |
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151 | (1) |
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5.5 Classification of overhead line insulators |
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151 | (6) |
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152 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Disc-type insulator |
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152 | (2) |
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5.5.3 Shackle-type insulator |
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154 | (1) |
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5.5.4 Stay-type insulator |
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155 | (1) |
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5.5.5 Line-post-type insulator |
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155 | (1) |
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5.5.6 Porcelain long-rod-type insulator |
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155 | (1) |
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5.5.7 Composite silicone insulator for transmission line |
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156 | (1) |
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5.5.8 Comparison of different types of insulators |
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157 | (1) |
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5.6 Requirement of insulator sets |
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157 | (1) |
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157 | (1) |
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5.7.1 Suspension type string |
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157 | (1) |
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158 | (1) |
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5.8 Voltage distribution in string |
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158 | (2) |
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5.9 Effect of unequal voltage distribution |
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160 | (1) |
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161 | (1) |
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5.11 Improvement of voltage distribution and string efficiency |
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162 | (1) |
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5.11.1 Connection of parallel string |
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162 | (1) |
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5.11.2 Connection of multiple parallel composite silicone insulators |
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162 | (1) |
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5.11.3 Connection of grading for guard ring |
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162 | (1) |
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5.11.4 Connection of arc horn |
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163 | (1) |
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5.12 Selection practice for insulator |
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163 | (1) |
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5.13 Associated design factors of insulators |
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164 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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5.16 Failure of insulator |
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165 | (3) |
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166 | (1) |
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167 | (1) |
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168 | (1) |
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168 | (1) |
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168 | (1) |
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5.17 Standards, test and practice |
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168 | (10) |
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5.17.1 Electrical features |
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168 | (3) |
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5.17.2 Mechanical features |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (2) |
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174 | (1) |
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174 | (2) |
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176 | (1) |
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177 | (1) |
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5.17.8 Effect of environment on leakage current |
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177 | (1) |
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177 | (1) |
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178 | (1) |
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5.19 Useful standards and guidelines for further study |
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179 | (2) |
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179 | (2) |
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181 | (48) |
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181 | (1) |
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181 | (2) |
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6.2.1 Electrical properties of line conductors |
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182 | (1) |
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6.2.2 Thermomechanical properties of line conductors |
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182 | (1) |
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6.2.3 Stranded conductors |
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182 | (1) |
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183 | (1) |
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183 | (3) |
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186 | (6) |
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6.4.1 Conductor of the same material |
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186 | (1) |
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6.4.2 Composite conductors |
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187 | (5) |
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192 | (1) |
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6.6 Conductor with optical fibre cable |
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192 | (1) |
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192 | (1) |
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6.8 Earth wire or sky wire |
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193 | (1) |
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194 | (1) |
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6.10 Covered conductors or overhead cables |
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195 | (3) |
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198 | (1) |
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6.10.2 Grounding practice |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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199 | (5) |
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6.12.1 Conductor on pin insulator |
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199 | (1) |
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6.12.2 Conductor with suspension-type disc insulator |
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200 | (1) |
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6.12.3 Conductor with tension-type disc insulator |
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200 | (1) |
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6.12.4 Conductor with shackle-type insulator |
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201 | (1) |
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6.12.5 Earth conductor with support |
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201 | (1) |
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202 | (1) |
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202 | (1) |
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202 | (2) |
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6.13 Common stringing method |
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204 | (1) |
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204 | (2) |
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6.14.1 Machine for stringing |
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205 | (1) |
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206 | (8) |
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206 | (1) |
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207 | (1) |
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208 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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6.15.5 Effective AC resistance |
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209 | (1) |
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209 | (2) |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (1) |
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213 | (1) |
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6.15.10 Slack-stress relation |
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213 | (1) |
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6.15.11 Slack-sag relation |
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213 | (1) |
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6.15.12 Selection of conductor |
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213 | (1) |
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6.16 Conductor temperature |
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214 | (3) |
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6.16.1 Temperature variation |
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214 | (1) |
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6.16.2 Heat balance for conductor |
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215 | (2) |
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6.16.3 Temperature-dependent conductor-type selection |
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217 | (1) |
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217 | (7) |
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6.17.1 Classification of conductor motion |
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217 | (1) |
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218 | (2) |
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6.17.3 Wake wind oscillation |
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220 | (1) |
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221 | (1) |
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221 | (3) |
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224 | (1) |
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225 | (1) |
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225 | (4) |
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227 | (2) |
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7 Earthing and earth wire |
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229 | (26) |
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229 | (1) |
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7.2 Electric current on body |
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230 | (1) |
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230 | (1) |
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231 | (1) |
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7.5 Earthing mat or earthing grid |
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231 | (1) |
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7.6 Earthing conductor or earthing wire |
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231 | (1) |
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7.7 Materials used for earthing |
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231 | (1) |
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231 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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7.11 Soil resistance and its measurement |
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232 | (1) |
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7.12 Soil resistance measurement |
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233 | (1) |
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7.13 Earth resistance of electrode and its measurement |
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233 | (3) |
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7.14 Radial or star connection of electrodes |
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236 | (1) |
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7.15 Limitation of isolated neutral or ungrounded system |
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236 | (1) |
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7.16 Neutral grounded system |
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236 | (1) |
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7.17 Different grounding methods |
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237 | (3) |
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237 | (1) |
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7.17.2 Resistance grounding |
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237 | (2) |
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7.17.3 Reactance grounding |
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239 | (1) |
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7.17.4 Grounding by arc suppression coil |
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240 | (1) |
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7.17.5 Grounding by voltage transformer |
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240 | (1) |
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240 | (1) |
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7.18 Resonant grounding or Peterson coil grounding |
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240 | (1) |
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7.19 Fault current at different earthing system |
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241 | (6) |
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7.19.1 Fault current at isolated neutral or unearthed system |
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241 | (1) |
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7.19.2 Fault current at resistance earthed system |
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242 | (1) |
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7.19.3 Fault current at solid earthed system |
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243 | (1) |
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7.19.4 Fault current at reactance earthed system |
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244 | (2) |
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7.19.5 Resonant earthed system |
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246 | (1) |
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7.20 Harmonic suppression system |
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247 | (1) |
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7.21 Earthing transformer |
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247 | (1) |
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247 | (1) |
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7.23 Earthing for personal safety |
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248 | (1) |
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248 | (1) |
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7.25 Design features of earth wire |
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249 | (1) |
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7.26 Earth wire selection |
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250 | (1) |
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7.27 Optical ground wire fibre reinforced |
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251 | (1) |
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251 | (1) |
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251 | (1) |
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7.28.2 Counterpoise earthing |
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251 | (1) |
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7.29 Grounding in pole support |
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251 | (1) |
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7.30 Earthing of guard wire insulators' support end |
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252 | (1) |
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7.31 Neutral grounding in LV distribution line |
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252 | (1) |
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7.32 Research advancement |
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252 | (1) |
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253 | (1) |
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7.34 Standards and guidelines |
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253 | (2) |
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254 | (1) |
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8 Lightning and surge protection |
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255 | (28) |
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255 | (1) |
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256 | (1) |
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256 | (2) |
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8.3.1 Accumulation of charge |
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256 | (1) |
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8.3.2 Formation of streamer |
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257 | (1) |
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8.3.3 Lightning discharge |
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257 | (1) |
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|
258 | (1) |
|
8.5 Return lightning discharge or return stroke |
|
|
259 | (1) |
|
|
260 | (1) |
|
8.7 Frequency and intensity |
|
|
260 | (1) |
|
8.8 Effect of lightning and protective measures |
|
|
261 | (1) |
|
|
261 | (1) |
|
8.10 Earth wire or sky wire |
|
|
262 | (1) |
|
8.11 Shielding by earth wire |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
8.12 Surge impedance of earth wire |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
|
263 | (1) |
|
|
264 | (1) |
|
8.15 Wave propagation in transmission line |
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|
265 | (3) |
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|
265 | (1) |
|
8.15.2 Characteristic impedance |
|
|
266 | (1) |
|
|
266 | (1) |
|
8.15.4 Propagation constant |
|
|
266 | (1) |
|
|
266 | (1) |
|
8.15.6 Image impedance loading |
|
|
267 | (1) |
|
8.15.7 Velocity and wavelength of propagation wave |
|
|
267 | (1) |
|
8.15.8 Wave reflection and standing wave |
|
|
267 | (1) |
|
8.15.9 Protection against travelling waves |
|
|
268 | (1) |
|
|
268 | (7) |
|
8.16.1 Rod-gap lightning arrester |
|
|
269 | (1) |
|
8.16.2 Horn-gap lightning arrester |
|
|
269 | (1) |
|
8.16.3 Sphere-gap lightning arrester |
|
|
270 | (1) |
|
8.16.4 Multiple-gap lightning arrester |
|
|
270 | (1) |
|
8.16.5 Impulse-type lightning arrester |
|
|
271 | (1) |
|
8.16.6 Valve-type lightning arrester |
|
|
272 | (1) |
|
8.16.7 Expulsion-type lightning arrester |
|
|
272 | (1) |
|
8.16.8 Auto-valve-type lightning arrester |
|
|
273 | (1) |
|
8.16.9 Metal-oxide-type lightning arrester |
|
|
273 | (1) |
|
8.16.10 Thyrite-type lightning arrester |
|
|
274 | (1) |
|
|
275 | (1) |
|
8.18 Overvoltage measurement |
|
|
275 | (4) |
|
|
275 | (1) |
|
8.18.2 Capacitor-based voltage divider |
|
|
276 | (1) |
|
8.18.3 Voltage-converted current measurement |
|
|
277 | (1) |
|
8.18.4 Resistance-based voltage divider |
|
|
277 | (1) |
|
8.18.5 Voltage-converted frequency-based digital measurement |
|
|
277 | (1) |
|
8.18.6 Capacitor-based voltage transformer |
|
|
278 | (1) |
|
8.18.7 Digital recorder and impulse measurement |
|
|
278 | (1) |
|
8.18.8 Electrostatic voltmeter |
|
|
278 | (1) |
|
|
278 | (1) |
|
8.19 Measurement of dissipation factor |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
8.20 Measurement of partial discharge |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
8.21 High-voltage testing |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
8.23 Standards or guidelines |
|
|
280 | (3) |
|
|
281 | (2) |
|
9 Insulation coordination |
|
|
283 | (8) |
|
|
283 | (1) |
|
9.2 Voltage factors insulation selection |
|
|
283 | (1) |
|
9.3 Voltage signals in overhead lines |
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
9.3.1 Power frequency operating voltage and power frequency over voltage |
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
9.3.2 Power frequency voltage transients |
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
9.3.3 High-frequency voltage transient |
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
9.3.4 Direct lightning voltage |
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
9.3.5 Lightning restrike voltage |
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
9.4 Insulation coordination for a line insulator |
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
9.5 Basic impulse insulation level |
|
|
285 | (1) |
|
9.6 Insulation coordination with lightning arrester |
|
|
285 | (1) |
|
9.7 Substation considerations |
|
|
285 | (1) |
|
9.8 Common consideration for insulation coordination |
|
|
286 | (1) |
|
|
286 | (1) |
|
|
287 | (1) |
|
|
287 | (4) |
|
|
290 | (1) |
|
10 Route selection, commissioning, operation and maintenance |
|
|
291 | (20) |
|
|
291 | (1) |
|
|
291 | (6) |
|
10.2.1 General considerations |
|
|
293 | (2) |
|
|
295 | (2) |
|
10.2.3 Linking with underground cables |
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
10.3 Planning and construction |
|
|
297 | (2) |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
|
299 | (4) |
|
10.4.1 Responsibility and issues |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
|
301 | (1) |
|
|
302 | (1) |
|
10.4.5 Supervision, quality assurance in commissioning and commencement of operation |
|
|
302 | (1) |
|
10.5 Operation and maintenance |
|
|
303 | (2) |
|
|
303 | (1) |
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
10.6 Post-commissioning planning and management |
|
|
305 | (4) |
|
10.6.1 Operation management |
|
|
306 | (1) |
|
10.6.2 Maintenance management |
|
|
307 | (1) |
|
|
307 | (1) |
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
|
308 | (1) |
|
|
309 | (1) |
|
|
309 | (1) |
|
|
309 | (1) |
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
|
310 | (1) |
Further reading |
|
311 | (4) |
Index |
|
315 | |