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E-raamat: Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook, Volume 1

A. Kayode Coker (University of Wolverhampton, UK)

Formaat: PDF+DRM
Ilmumisaeg: 31-Jul-2018
Kirjastus: Wiley-Scrivener
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9781119257097

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Petroleum technology

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Formaat: PDF+DRM
Ilmumisaeg: 31-Jul-2018
Kirjastus: Wiley-Scrivener
Keel: eng
ISBN-13: 9781119257097

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Petroleum technology

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There is a renaissance that is occurring in chemical and process engineering, and it is crucial for today’s scientists, engineers, technicians, and operators to stay current. With so many changes over the last few decades in equipment and processes, petroleum refining is almost a living document, constantly needing updating. With no new refineries being built, companies are spending their capital re-tooling and adding on to existing plants. Refineries are like small cities, today, as they grow bigger and bigger and more and more complex. A huge percentage of a refinery can be changed, literally, from year to year, to account for the type of crude being refined or to integrate new equipment or processes.

This book is the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student. Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world’s foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area.

Preface

xix

Acknowledgments

xxi

About the Author

xxiii

1 Introduction

(6)

References

(1)

2 Composition of Crude Oils and Petroleum Products

(24)

2.1 Hydrocarbons

(6)

2.1.1 Alkynes Series

(2)

2.2 Aromatic Hydrocarbons

(1)

2.3 Heteroatomic Organic Compounds

(3)

2.3.1 Non-Hydrocarbons

(3)

2.3.2 Sulfur Compounds

(1)

2.4 Thiols

(2)

2.5 Oxygen Compounds

(2)

2.6 Nitrogen Compounds

(1)

2.7 Resins and Asphaltenes

(1)

2.8 Salts

(1)

2.9 Carbon Dioxide

(1)

2.10 Metallic Compounds

(1)

2.11 Products Composition

(5)

2.11.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) (C3 and C4)

(1)

2.11.2 Gasoline (C3 to Gil)

(1)

2.11.3 Condensate (C4, C5 and C6 >)

(1)

2.11.4 Gas Fuel Oils (C12 to C19)

(1)

2.11.5 Kerosene

(1)

2.11.6 Diesel Fuel

(1)

2.11.7 Fuel Oils # 4, 5, and 6

(1)

2.11.8 Residual Fuel Oil

(1)

2.11.9 Natural Gas

(1)

References

(1)

3 Characterization of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions

(32)

3.1 Introduction

(6)

3.1.1 Crude Oil Properties

(1)

3.1.2 Gravity, API

(1)

3.1.3 Boiling Point Range

(1)

3.1.4 Characterization Factor

(1)

3.1.5 The Universal Oil Product Characterization factor, Kuop

(1)

3.1.6 Carbon Residue, wt%

(2)

3.1.7 Nitrogen Content, wt%

(1)

3.1.8 Sulfur Content, wt%

(1)

3.1.9 Total Acid Number (TAN)

(1)

3.1.10 Salt Content, pounds/1000 barrels

(1)

3.1.11 Metals, parts/million (ppm) by weight

(1)

3.1.12 Pour Point (°F or °C)

(1)

3.2 Crude Oil Assay Data

(1)

3.2.1 Whole crude oil average properties

(1)

3.2.2 Fractional properties

(1)

3.3 Crude Cutting Analysis

(1)

3.4 Crude Oil Blending

(9)

3.5 Laboratory Testing of Crude Oils

(12)

3.5.1 True Boiling Point (TBP) Curve

(1)

3.5.2 ASTM D86 Distillation

(1)

3.5.3 Boiling Points

(2)

3.5.4 Conversion Between ASTM and TBP Distillation

(5)

3.5.5 Petroleum Pseudo-Components

(1)

3.5.6 Pseudo-Component Normal Boiling Points

(1)

3.5.7 ASTM D1160 Distillation

(1)

3.5.8 Determination of ASTM IBP, 10%, 20-90% Points of Blend

(1)

3.5.9 ASTM 10-90% Points

(1)

3.5.10 Initial Boiling Point Determination

(1)

3.5.11 ASTM End Point of Blend

(1)

3.5.12 Flash Point

(1)

3.5.13 Flash Point, °F, as a Function of Average Boiling Point

(1)

3.5.14 Smoke Point of Kerosenes

(1)

3.5.15 Luminometer Number

(1)

3.5.16 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP)

(1)

3.5.17 Vapor Pressure of Narrow Hydrocarbon Cuts

(1)

3.6 Octanes

(1)

3.7 Cetanes

(1)

3.7.1 Cetane Index

(1)

3.8 Diesel Index

(1)

3.9 Determination of the Lower Heating Value of Petroleum Fractions

(1)

3.10 Aniline Point Blending

(1)

3.11 Correlation Index (CI)

(1)

3.12 Chromatographically Simulated Distillations

(1)

References

(1)

4 Thermodynamic Properties of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions

(48)

4.1 K-Factor Hydrocarbon Equilibrium Charts

(8)

4.2 Non-Ideal Systems

(2)

4.3 Vapor Pressure

(6)

4.3.1 Vapor Pressure Determination using the Clausius-Clapeyron and the Antoine Equations

(5)

4.4 Viscosity

(7)

4.4.1 Conversion to Saybolt Universal Viscosity

(2)

4.4.2 Conversion to Saybolt Furol Viscosity

(1)

4.4.3 Equivalents of Kinematic (cSt), Saybolt Universal (SUS), and Dynamic viscosity

(1)

4.4.4 Viscosity of Liquid Hydrocarbons

(1)

4.4.5 Gas Viscosity

(3)

4.5 Refractive Index

(2)

4.6 Liquid Density

(1)

4.6.1 Gas Density

(1)

4.7 Molecular Weight

(1)

4.8 Molecular Type Composition

(6)

4.9 Critical Temperature, Tc

(1)

4.10 Critical Pressure, Pc

(1)

4.11 Pseudo-Critical Constants and Acentric Factors

(1)

4.12 Enthalpy of Petroleum Fractions

(1)

4.13 Compressibility Z Factor of Natural Gases

100

(5)

4.14 Simulation Thermodynamic Software Programs

105

(5)

References

110

(1)

5 Process Descriptions of Refinery Processes

111

(38)

5.1 Introduction

111

(4)

5.2 Refinery and Distillation Processes

115

(5)

5.3 Process Description of the Crude Distillation Unit

120

(12)

5.3.1 Crude Oil Desalting

121

(1)

5.3.2 Types of Salts in Crude Oil

122

(1)

5.3.3 Desalting Process

122

(5)

5.3.4 Pumparound Heat Removal

127

(3)

5.3.5 Tower Pressure Drop and Flooding

130

(1)

5.3.6 Carbon Steel Trays

130

(1)

5.3.7 Rectifying Section of the Main Column

130

(1)

5.3.8 Side Stripping Columns

130

(1)

5.3.9 Crude Column Overhead

130

(1)

5.3.10 General Properties of Petroleum Fractions

130

(2)

5.4 Process Variables in the Design of Crude Distillation Column

132

(2)

5.4.1 Process Design of a Crude Distillation Column

133

(1)

5.5 Process Simulation

134

(4)

5.5.1 Overall Check of Simulation

135

(1)

5.5.2 Other Aspects of Design

136

(1)

5.5.3 Relationship between Actual Trays and Theoretical Trays

137

(1)

5.6 Process Description of Light Arabian Crude Using UniSini Simulation Software [ 12]

138

(6)

5.6.1 Column Conventions

141

(1)

5.6.2 Performance Specifications Definition

142

(1)

5.6.3 Cut Points

142

(1)

5.6.4 Degree of Separation

142

(1)

5.6.5 Overflash

142

(1)

5.6.6 Column Pressure

143

(1)

5.6.7 Overhead Temperature

143

(1)

5.6.8 Bottom Stripping

144

(1)

5.6.9 Side Stream Stripper

144

(1)

5.6.10 Reflux

144

(1)

5.7 Troubleshooting Actual Columns

144

(1)

5.8 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations

145

(3)

References

148

(1)

6 Thermal Cracking Processes

149

(38)

6.1 Process Description

152

(1)

6.2 Steam Jet Ejector

152

(2)

6.3 Pressure Survey in a Vacuum Column

154

(2)

6.4 Simulation of Vacuum Distillation Unit

156

(1)

6.5 Coking

157

(7)

6.5.1 Delayed Coking

157

(4)

6.5.2 Delayed Coker Yield Prediction

161

(1)

6.5.3 Coke Formation

162

(1)

6.5.4 Thermodynamics of Coking of Light Hydrocarbons

162

(1)

6.5.5 Gas Composition

163

(1)

6.6 Fluid Coking

164

(6)

6.6.1 Flexi-Coking

165

(2)

6.6.2 Contact Coking

167

(1)

6.6.3 Coke Drums

168

(2)

6.6.4 Heavy Coker Gas Oil (HCGO) Production

170

(1)

6.6.5 Light Coker Gas Oil (LCGO) Production

170

(1)

6.7 Fractionator Overhead System

170

(2)

6.8 Coke Drum Operations

172

(1)

6.9 Hydraulic Jet Decoking

173

(1)

6.10 Uses of Petroleum Coke

174

(1)

6.11 Use of Gasification

174

(1)

6.12 Sponge Coke

175

(1)

6.13 Safety and Environmental Considerations

175

(1)

6.14 Simulation/Calculations

176

(1)

6.15 Visbreaking

177

(7)

6.15.1 Visbreaking Reactions

180

(1)

6.15.2 Visbreaking Severity

180

(1)

6.15.3 Operation and Control

180

(1)

6.15.4 Typical Visbreaker Unit

181

(1)

6.15.5 Typical Visbreaker Unit with Vacuum Flasher

182

(1)

6.15.6 Typical Combination Visbreaker and Thermal Cracker

183

(1)

6.15.7 Product Yield

183

(1)

6.16 Process Simulation

184

(1)

6.17 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations

185

(1)

References

186

(1)

7 Hydroprocessing

187

(72)

7.1 Catalytic Conversion Processes

187

(7)

7.1.1 Hydrocracking Chemistry

188

(2)

7.1.2 Hydrocracking Reactions

190

(1)

7.1.3 Typical Hydrocracking Reactions

191

(3)

7.2 Feed Specifications

194

(2)

7.2.1 Space Velocity

195

(1)

7.2.2 Reactor Temperature

195

(1)

7.2.3 Reactor Pressure

195

(1)

7.2.4 Hydrogen Recycle Rate

195

(1)

7.2.5 Oil Recycle Ratio

195

(1)

7.2.6 Heavy Polynuclear Aromatics

196

(1)

7.3 Feed Boiling Range

196

(1)

7.4 Catalyst

196

(4)

7.4.1 Catalyst Performance

197

(1)

7.4.2 Loss of Catalyst Performance

197

(1)

7.4.3 Poisoning by Impurities in Feeds or Catalysts

198

(2)

7.4.4 The Apparent Catalyst Activity

200

(1)

7.5 Poor Gas Distribution

200

(1)

7.6 Poor Mixing of Reactants

200

(1)

7.7 The Mechanism of Hydrocracking

200

(1)

7.8 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Hydrocracking

201

(3)

7.9 Process Design, Rating and Performance

204

(6)

7.9.1 Operating Temperature and Pressure

205

(1)

7.9.2 Optimum Catalyst Size and Shape

205

(1)

7.9.3 Pressure Drop (AP) in Tubular/Fixed-Bed Reactors

205

(2)

7.9.4 Catalyst Particle Size

207

(1)

7.9.5 Vessel Dimensions

208

(2)

7.10 Increased AP

210

(4)

7.11 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate

214

(1)

7.12 Measurement of Performance

215

(1)

7.13 Catalyst-Bed Temperature Profiles

216

(1)

7.14 Factors Affecting Hydrocracking Process Operation

217

(1)

7.15 Hydrocracking Correlations

217

(11)

7.15.1 Maximum Aviation Turbine Kerosene (ATK) Correlations

219

(1)

7.15.2 Process Description

220

(4)

7.15.3 Fresh Feed and Recycle Liquid System

224

(1)

7.15.4 Liquid and Vapor Separators

225

(1)

7.15.5 Recycle Gas Compression and Distribution

226

(1)

7.15.6 Hydrogen Distribution

226

(1)

7.15.7 Control of the Hydrogen System

226

(1)

7.15.8 Reactor Design

227

(1)

7.16 Hydrocracker Fractionating Unit

228

(3)

7.16.1 Mild Vacuum Column

230

(1)

7.16.2 Steam Generation

230

(1)

7.17 Operating Variables

231

(3)

7.18 Hydrotreating Process

234

(6)

7.18.1 Process Description

237

(1)

7.18.2 Process Variables

237

(3)

7.18.3 Hydrotreating Catalysts

240

(1)

7.19 Thermodynamics of Hydrotreating

240

(3)

7.20 Reaction Kinetics

243

(2)

7.21 Naphtha Hydrotreating

245

(5)

7.21.1 Hydrotreating Correlations

245

(3)

7.21.2 Middle Distillates Hydrotreating

248

(1)

7.21.3 Middle Distillate Hydrotreating Correlations

248

(2)

7.22 Atmospheric Residue Desulfurization

250

(8)

7.22.1 High-Pressure Separator

252

(1)

7.22.2 Low-Pressure Separator

252

(1)

7.22.3 Hydrogen Sulfide Removal

252

(1)

7.22.4 Recycled Gas Compressor

252

(1)

7.22.5 Process Water

252

(1)

7.22.6 Fractionation Column

253

(1)

7.22.7 Operating Conditions of Hydrotreating Processes

253

(5)

7.23 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations

258

(1)

References

258

(1)

8 Catalytic Cracking

259

(46)

8.1 Introduction

259

(3)

8.2 Fluidized Bed Catalytic Cracking

262

(7)

8.2.1 Process Description

262

(7)

8.3 Modes of Fluidization

269

(1)

8.4 Cracking Reactions

270

(3)

8.4.1 Secondary Reactions

272

(1)

8.5 Thermodynamics of FCC

273

(5)

8.5.1 Transport Phenomena, Reaction Patterns and Kinetic models

273

(3)

8.5.2 Three- and Four-Lump kinetic models

276

(2)

8.6 Process Design Variables

278

(3)

8.6.1 Process Variables

279

(1)

8.6.2 Process Operational Variables

280

(1)

8.7 Material and Energy Balances

281

(2)

8.7.1 Material Balance

281

(1)

8.7.2 Energy Balance

282

(1)

8.8 Heat Recovery

283

(1)

8.9 FCC Yield Correlations

284

(2)

8.10 Estimating Potential Yields of FCC Feed

286

(4)

8.11 Pollution Control

290

(2)

8.12 New Technology

292

(4)

8.12.1 Deep Catalytic Cracking

293

(1)

8.12.2 Shell's Fluid Catalytic Cracking

294

(1)

8.12.3 Fluid Catalytic Cracking High Severity

295

(1)

8.12.4 Fluid Catalytic Cracking for Maximum Olefins

295

(1)

8.13 Refining/Petrochemical Integration

296

(1)

8.14 Metallurgy

296

(1)

8.15 Troubleshooting for Fluidized Catalyst Cracking Units

297

(1)

8.16 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations

298

(1)

8.17 Licensors' Correlations

299

(1)

8.18 Simulation and Modeling Strategy

300

(4)

References

304

(1)

9 Catalytic Reforming and Isomerization

305

(34)

9.1 Introduction

305

(1)

9.2 Catalytic Reforming

306

(1)

9.3 Feed Characterization

306

(2)

9.4 Catalytic Reforming Processes

308

(4)

9.4.1 Role of Reformer in the Refinery

309

(1)

9.4.2 UOP Continuous Catalytic Regeneration (CCR) Reforming Process

310

(2)

9.5 Operations of the Reformer Process

312

(4)

9.5.1 Effect of Major Variables in Catalytic Reforming

314

(2)

9.6 Catalytic Reformer Reactors

316

(1)

9.7 Material Balance in Reforming

317

(3)

9.8 Reactions

320

(2)

9.8.1 Naphthene Dehydrogenation to Cyclohexanes

320

(1)

9.8.2 Dehydrocyclization of Paraffins to Aromatics

321

(1)

9.8.3 Dehydroisomerization of Alkylcyclopentanes to Aromatics

321

(1)

9.8.4 Isomerization of n-Paraffins

321

(1)

9.9 Hydrocracking Reactions

322

(1)

9.10 Reforming Catalyst

322

(2)

9.11 Coke Deposition

324

(2)

9.12 Thermodynamics

326

(1)

9.13 Kinetic Models

326

(1)

9.14 The Reactor Model

326

(3)

9.15 Modeling of Naphtha Catalytic Reforming Process

329

(1)

9.16 Isomerization

329

(2)

9.16.1 Thermodynamics

330

(1)

9.16.2 Isomerization Reactions

331

(1)

9.17 Sulfolane Extraction Process

331

(2)

9.17.1 Sulfolane Extraction Unit (SEU) Corrosion Problems

332

(1)

9.17.2 Other Solvents for the Extraction Unit

333

(1)

9.18 Aromatic Complex

333

(3)

9.18.1 Aromatic Separation

335

(1)

9.19 Hydrodealkylation Process

336

(1)

9.19.1 Separation of the Reactor Effluents

337

(1)

References

337

(2)

10 Alkylation and Polymerization Processes

339

(26)

10.1 Introduction

339

(1)

10.2 Chemistry of Alkylation

340

(2)

10.3 Catalysts

342

(1)

10.4 Process Variables

343

(2)

10.5 Alkylation Feedstocks

345

(1)

10.6 Alkylation Products

346

(1)

10.7 Sulfuric Acid Alkylation Process

346

(1)

10.8 HF Alkylation

347

(4)

10.9 Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Alkylation

351

(3)

10.10 Polymerization

354

(1)

10.11 HF and H2SO4 Mitigating Releases

354

(2)

10.12 Corrosion Problems

356

(1)

10.13 A New Technology of Alkylation Process Using Ionic Liquid

356

(1)

10.14 Chevron - Honeywell UOP Ionic liquid Alkylation

357

(1)

10.15 Chemical Release and Flash Fire: A Case Study of the Alkylation Unit at the Delaware City Refining Company (DCRC) Involving Equipment Maintenance Incident

358

(4)

References

362

(3)

11 Hydrogen Production and Purification

365

(16)

11.1 Hydrogen Requirements in a Refinery

365

(1)

11.2 Process Chemistry

366

(2)

11.3 High-Temperature Shift Conversion

368

(1)

11.4 Low-Temperature Shift Conversion

368

(1)

11.5 Gas Purification

368

(1)

11.6 Purification of Hydrogen Product

369

(1)

11.7 Hydrogen Distribution System

370

(1)

11.8 Off-Gas Hydrogen Recovery

371

(1)

11.9 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) Unit

371

(4)

11.10 Refinery Hydrogen Management

375

(2)

11.11 Hydrogen Pinch Studies

377

(2)

References

379

(2)

12 Gas Processing and Acid Gas Removal

381

(57)

12.1 Introduction

381

(2)

12.2 Diesel Hydrodesulfurization (DHDS)

383

(1)

12.3 Hydrotreating Reactions

383

(5)

12.4 Gas Processing

388

(3)

12.4.1 Natural Gas

388

(1)

12.4.2 Gas Processing Methods

389

(1)

12.4.3 Reaction Gas Processes

390

(1)

12.4.4 Sweetening Process

390

(1)

12.4.5 MEROX Process

390

(1)

12.5 Sulfur Management

391

(10)

12.5.1 Sulfur Recovery Processes

393

(8)

12.5.2 Tail Gas Clean Up

401

(1)

12.6 Physical Solvent Gas Processes

401

(1)

12.6.1 Physical and Chemical Processes

402

(1)

12.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Sulfinol® Process

402

(1)

12.7 Carbonate Process

402

(1)

12.8 Solution Batch Process

403

(2)

12.9 Process Description of Gas Processing using UniSim® Simulation

405

(5)

12.10 Gas Dryer (Dehydration) Design

410

(5)

12.10.1 The Equations

412

(1)

12.10.2 Pressure Drop (AP)

413

(1)

12.10.3 Fouled Bed

413

(2)

12.11 Kremser-Brown-Sherwood Method-No Heat of Absorption

415

(6)

12.11.1 Absorption: Determine Component Absorption in Fixed Tray Tower (Adapted in part from Ref. 12)

415

(2)

12.11.2 Absorption: Determine the Number of Trays for Specified Product Absorption

417

(1)

12.11.3 Stripping: Determine the Number of Theoretical Trays and Stripping Steam or Gas Rate for a Component Recovery

418

(2)

12.11.4 Stripping: Determine Stripping-Medium Rate for a Fixed Recovery

420

(1)

12.12 Absorption: Edmister Method

421

(11)

12.12.1 Absorption and Stripping Efficiency

427

(5)

12.13 Gas Treating Troubleshooting

432

(2)

12.13.1 High Exit Gas Dew Point

432

(1)

12.13.2 High Glycol Losses

432

(1)

12.13.3 Glycol Contamination

432

(1)

12.13.4 Poor Glycol Reconcentration

433

(1)

12.13.5 Low Glycol Circulation - Glycol Pump

433

(1)

12.13.6 High Pressure Drop Across Contactor

433

(1)

12.13.7 High Stripping Still Temperature

433

(1)

12.13.8 High Reboiler Pressure

433

(1)

12.13.9 Firetube Fouling/Hot Spots/Burn Out

433

(1)

12.13.10 High Gas Dew Points

433

(1)

12.13.11 Cause - Inadequate Glycol Circulation Rate

433

(1)

12.13.12 Low Reboiler Temperature

433

(1)

12.13.13 Flash Separator Failure

434

(1)

12.13.14 Cause - Insufficient Reconcentration of Glycol

434

(1)

12.13.15 Cause - Operating Conditions Different from Design

434

(1)

12.13.16 Cause - Low Gas Flow Rates

434

(1)

12.13.17 High Glycol Loss

434

(1)

12.14 Cause - Loss of Glycol Out of Still Column

434

(1)

12.15 The ADIP Process

435

(1)

12.16 Sour Water Stripping Process

435

(3)

References

438

(3)

Glossary of Petroleum and Technical Terminology

441

(92)

Appendix A Equilibrium K values

533

(14)

Appendix B Analytical Techniques

547

(10)

Appendix C Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Major Hydrocarbons

557

(16)

Appendix D A List of Engineering Process Flow Diagrams and Process Data Sheets

573

(50)

Index

623

Kayode Coker PhD, is Engineering Consultant for AKC Technology, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Wolverhampton, U.K., a former Engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company and Chairman of the department of Chemical Engineering Technology at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia. He has been a chartered chemical engineer for more than 30 years. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K. and a senior member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, U.K. and a Teacher's Certificate in Education at the University of London, U.K. He has directed and conducted short courses extensively throughout the world and has been a lecturer at the university level. His articles have been published in several international journals. He is an author of five books in chemical engineering, a contributor to the Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol 61. He was named as one of the International Biographical Centre's Leading Engineers of the World for 2008. Also, he is a member of International Who's Who of ProfessionalsTM and Madison Who's Who in the U.S.

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