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E-raamat: Practical Plant Failure Analysis: A Guide to Understanding Machinery Deterioration and Improving Equipment Reliability, Second Edition

  • Formaat: 400 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 08-Oct-2019
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press
  • ISBN-13: 9780429835513
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  • Formaat: 400 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 08-Oct-2019
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press
  • ISBN-13: 9780429835513

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This is a practical guide for those who do the work of maintaining and improving the reliability of mechanical machinery. It is for engineers and skilled trades personnel who want to understand how failures happen and how the physical causes of the great majority can be readily diagnosed in the field. It explains the four major failure mechanisms, wear, corrosion, overload, and fatigue and, using easy-to-read charts, how they can be diagnosed at the site of the failure. Then, knowing the physical failure mechanics involved, the reader can accurately solve the human causes.

To improve the readers understanding, all the diagrams and most of the tables have been redrawn. The number of actual failure examples has been increased, plus the last chapter on miscellaneous machine elements includes new material on couplings, universal joints, and plain bearings.

Features











A practical field guide showing how to recognize how failures occur that can be used to solve more than 85% of mechanical machinery failures





Incorporates multiple easy-to-follow logic trees to help the reader diagnose the physical causes of the failure without needing detailed laboratory analysis





Explains how the mechanics, corrosion, materials science, and tribology of components can fit together to improve machinery reliability





Includes more than 150 completely redrawn charts and tables, plus almost 250 actual failure photographs to help guide the reader to an accurate analysis





Contains clear and detailed explanations of how lubricants function and the critical roles of corrosion and lubrication play in causing mechanical failures
Preface xv
Author xvii
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Failure Analysis 1(20)
The Causes of Failures
2(2)
Root Cause Analysis (RCA) and Understanding the Roots
4(8)
Physical Roots
4(1)
Human Roots
5(3)
The Human Error Study
8(3)
Latent Roots
11(1)
The Multiple Roots and How They Interact
12(2)
Why Multiple Roots Are Frequently Missed
12(2)
The Benefits and Savings
14(4)
Using Logic Trees
18(1)
Summary
18(1)
Bibliography
19(2)
Chapter 2 Some General Comments on Failure Analysis 21(14)
The Failure Mechanisms - How They Occur and Their Appearances
21(12)
When Should a Failure Analysis Be Conducted and How Deeply Should It Go?
21(25)
How Long Should It Last?
22(2)
Diagnosing the Failure
24(2)
Finding the Physical Roots
26(1)
Comments on the Seven Steps - Continued
27(2)
Introduction to Materials - Stresses and Strains
29(1)
Determining the Failure Mechanisms
30(1)
The Plant Failure Analysis Laboratory
30(3)
Summary
33(1)
Bibliography
33(2)
Chapter 3 Materials and the Sources of Stresses 35(28)
Stress
35(1)
Elasticity
36(1)
Plasticity
37(2)
Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus)
39(1)
Toughness
40(2)
Fatigue
42(1)
Fatigue Strength vs. Time
42(3)
Some Basic Metallurgy
45(1)
Carbon Steels
46(5)
Iron and Its Alloying Elements
49(2)
SAE Numbering Code
51(2)
Understanding Steel Terminology and Material Designations
53(1)
Cast Iron
54(1)
Stainless Steels
54(1)
Strengthening Metals
55(1)
Heat Treating
56(2)
Cold Working
58(1)
Thermal Expansion
58(2)
Temperature Effect on Tensile, Fatigue and Yield Strengths
60(1)
Summary
60(1)
Bibliography
61(2)
Chapter 4 Overload Failures 63(18)
Introduction
63(9)
Temperature Effects on Overload Failures
66(2)
Analysis of Ductile Failures
68(2)
Analysis of Brittle Fractures
70(2)
Chevron Marks
71(1)
Unusual Conditions
72(8)
Brittle Fractures of Ductile Materials
72(5)
Rapid Force Application
73(1)
Constrained Materials
74(1)
Notch Sensitivity of Brittle Materials
75(2)
Three Valuable Brittle Fracture Examples
77(47)
A Case Hardened Bell Crank
77(1)
Brittle Fracture of Two Very Ductile Stainless Bolts
78(1)
A Great Welding Metallurgy/Brittle Fracture/Failure Analysis Example
78(2)
Summary
80(1)
Bibliography
80(1)
Chapter 5 Fatigue Failures (Part 1): The Basics 81(30)
Fatigue Failure Categories
81(2)
Stress Concentrations
83(1)
Structure Changes Caused by High Cycle Fatigue
84(2)
Diagnosing a High Cycle Fatigue Failure
86(1)
Progression Mark Basics
86(2)
Fracture Growth and Understanding the Source of
the Stress - Rotating Bending vs. Plain Bending
88(3)
Progression Marks and Varying Stress Levels
91(2)
Progression Marks and Stress Concentrations
93(1)
Ratchet Marks
93(3)
Rotating Bending Failures with Multiple Origins
96(1)
Stress and Stress Concentrations
96(2)
Fracture Face Contours and Stress Concentrations
98(1)
Interpreting the Instantaneous Zone (IZ) Shape
99(2)
Guides to Interpreting the Fatigue Fracture Face
101(1)
Solving Failure
101(9)
Bibliography
110(1)
Chapter 6 Fatigue Failures (Part 2): Torsional, Low, and Very Low Cycle, Failure Influences, and Some Fatigue Interpretations 111(26)
Torsional Fatigue and Failures
111(5)
River Marks and Fatigue Crack Growth
116(1)
Plate and Rectangular Member Failures
117(2)
Fatigue Data Reliability and Corrosion Effect on Fatigue Strength
119(2)
Residual Stress contribution to Fatigue Cracking
121(1)
Combined Fatigue and Steady State Stresses
122(1)
Base Material Problems
123(1)
Very Low Cycle and Low Cycle Fatigue
124(3)
VLC in Relatively Brittle Materials
124(2)
VLC in Ductile Materials
126(1)
Unusual Situations
127(1)
Failure Examples
128(8)
Bibliography
136(1)
Chapter 7 Understanding and Recognizing Corrosion 137(40)
Some Basics about Corrosion
137(3)
Conditions Affecting Corrosion Rates
140(9)
Temperature Effects
140(2)
pH Effects
142(2)
Oxygen Availability
144(1)
Exposure Time and Flow Effects
144(3)
The Effect of Atmosphere and Contaminants
147(2)
How Oxides Prevent or Reduce Corrosion (Aluminum, Stainless Steel, Etc.)
149(1)
The Types of Corrosion
149(26)
Uniform Corrosion
150(4)
Appearance
150(2)
Comments on Uniform Corrosion
152(1)
Prevention
152(1)
Fretting
153(1)
Galvanic Corrosion
154(5)
Appearance
156(1)
Comments
156(1)
Prevention
156(1)
Selective Leaching
157(2)
Intergranular Corrosion
159(1)
Appearance
159(1)
Comments
159(1)
Prevention
160(1)
Erosion Corrosion
160(4)
Appearance
161(1)
Comments
161(1)
Prevention
161(1)
Cavitation
162(2)
Concentration Cell Corrosion
164(2)
Appearance
164(1)
Comments
164(1)
Prevention
164(1)
Crevice Corrosion
164(2)
Pitting Corrosion
166(2)
Appearance
166(1)
Comments
166(2)
Prevention
168(1)
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
168(3)
Appearance
169(1)
Comments
170(1)
Prevention and Correction
171(1)
Hydrogen Damage
171(4)
Hydrogen Blistering
171(1)
Hydrogen Influenced Cracking (HIC)
172(2)
Hydrogen Embrittlement
174(1)
A Special Category: Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
175(1)
Bibliography
175(2)
Chapter 8 Lubrication and Wear 177(32)
Three Types of Lubricated Contact
177(6)
Lambda - the Lubricant Film Thickness
178(1)
Ball and Roller Bearing Lubrication (Elastohydrodynamic)
179(1)
Hydrodynamic Action
180(1)
Boundary Lubrication
180(3)
The Stribeck Curve
183(1)
Understand Different Lubricants
183(8)
Viscosity Measurement and Viscosity Index
183(1)
Viscosity Index
184(2)
Base Oils
186(1)
Additives
187(3)
Greases
190(1)
Lubricant Applications
191(7)
Rolling Element Bearings
191(8)
The Pressure Viscosity Coefficient
192(2)
Lubricant Films and the Effects of Contamination
194(1)
Developing a Relubrication Program
195(3)
Plain Bearings
198(1)
Lubrication Summary
199(1)
Defining Wear
199(8)
Airborne Erosion
206(1)
Summary Comments on Wear Failures
207(1)
Bibliography
207(2)
Chapter 9 Belt Drives 209(22)
Belt Design
209(7)
Belt Operation Overview
212(1)
Belt Drive Design
213(1)
Belt Operation Details
214(1)
Drive Efficiencies
215(1)
Temperature Effects
216(1)
Belt Operation and Failure Causes
216(5)
Slippage
216(1)
Tension Ratios
217(1)
High Ambient Operating Temperatures
218(1)
High Operating Loads
219(1)
Misalignment
219(1)
Sheaves Sizes and wear
220(1)
Sheave and Sprocket Wear
221(1)
Belt Resonance
222(1)
Belt Drive Failure Analysis Techniques
222(9)
Chapter 10 Ball and Roller Bearings 231(50)
Parts of a Bearing
231(3)
Bearing Materials
231(3)
Cages
234(1)
Bearing Ratings and Equipment Design
235(3)
Hertzian Fatigue, Rolling Element Bearing Lubrication, and Surface Fatigue
238(2)
The Reasons Why Bearings Fail
240(1)
A Detailed Rolling Element Bearing Failure Analysis Procedure
241(25)
Appearance of Electrical Damage Mechanisms
266(8)
Roller and Tapered Roller Bearing Mounting Surfaces
274(2)
The Detailed Rolling Element Bearing Failure Analysis Procedure
276(2)
Final Comments on Failure Analysis
278(1)
Bibliography
279(2)
Chapter 11 Gears 281(38)
Gear Terminology
281(2)
Types of Gears
283(2)
Tooth Action
285(2)
Load and Stress Fluctuations
287(2)
Gear Materials
289(3)
Tooth Contact Patterns
292(3)
Backlash
295(14)
Design Life and Deterioration Mechanisms
295(1)
Through Hardened Gear Deterioration Mechanisms
296(7)
Pitting and Wear
296(4)
Plastic Deformation
300(1)
Adhesive Wear
301(1)
Tooth Fracture
302(1)
Case Hardened Gear Deterioration Mechanisms
303(8)
Micropitting
303(2)
Rippling
305(1)
Pitting
305(2)
Spalling
307(1)
Case Crushing
307(1)
Thermal Power Rating
308(1)
Analyzing Gear Failures
309(2)
Failure Examples
311(7)
Intermediate Pinion Failure Example 11-1
311(1)
Broken Gear Tooth - Failure Example 11-2
312(1)
Large Pump Drive Gear - Failure Example 11-3
313(1)
Haul Truck Pinion - Failure Example 11-4
314(1)
Paper Machine Reducer Gear - Failure Example 11-5
315(1)
Kiln Reducer Intermediate Gear - Failure Example 11-6
315(1)
Inboard-Outboard Prop Drive Gear - Failure Example 11-7
316(1)
Reversing Industrial Drive Gear - Failure Example 11-8
316(2)
Bibliography
318(1)
Chapter 12 Fastener and Bolted Joint Failures 319(30)
How Bolts Work
319(10)
Bolt Standards
321(3)
Nut Standards
324(2)
Materials
326(1)
Fatigue Design
327(2)
Assembly Practices
329(4)
Bolting Patterns and Sequences
329(4)
Fastener Failures
333(5)
Fatigue Failures
334(2)
Hydrogen Embrittlement and Hydrogen Influenced Cracking
336(1)
Failure Locations and Bolt Designs
337(1)
General Comments and Cautions on Bolting
337(1)
Failure Examples
338(10)
Example 12.E1
338(1)
Example 12.E2
339(1)
Example 12.E3
339(1)
Example 12.E4
340(1)
Example 12.E5
341(1)
Example 12.E6
342(1)
Example 12.E7
343(1)
Example 12.E8
344(1)
Example 12.E9
345(1)
Example 12.E10
345(1)
Example 12.E11
346(2)
Bibliography
348(1)
Chapter 13 Miscellaneous Machine Component Failures - Chains, Lip Seals, Couplings, Universal Joints, and Plain Bearings 349(24)
Chains
349(5)
Chain Design
349(1)
Wear
350(1)
Lubrication
351(1)
Chain Breakage
352(2)
Lip Seals
354(3)
Failure Analysis
356(1)
Flexible Couplings
357(5)
Grid and Gear Couplings
357(3)
Disk Couplings
360(1)
Elastomer Couplings
360(2)
Universal Joints
362(9)
Plain Bearings (Journal Bearings)
363(8)
Bibliography
371(2)
PPFA - A Glossary of Technical Terms 373(6)
Index 379
A native of Northern New Jersey, Mr. Neville W. Sachs attended Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, NJ where he received a Bachelor of Engineering degree, majoring in Mechanical and Chemical Engineering. After a variety of manufacturing, engineering, and supervisory positions, he joined Allied Chemical (now Honeywell International). From then until the Syracuse Works closed, he was heavily involved with plant reliability as an engineer and Reliability Engineering Department supervisor. While there, he was instrumental in developing one of the first large predictive maintenance inspection programs in the nation, served on a number of corporate technical committees, and received a patent for a device that demonstrates several of the mechanisms of fastener failures.

In early 1986, Mr. Sachs, a licensed Professional Engineer, joined with Philip Salvaterra to form Sachs, Salvaterra & Associates, Inc., (SS&A) a consulting "Reliability Engineering Department for Hire". After 25 years serving as the president of SS&A, the company was absorbed by Applied Technical Services of Marietta, GA and, in 2014 he returned to private practice.

Mr. Sachs has conducted thousands of failure analyses and taught hundreds of failure analysis seminars across North America and Europe. He is a past chairman of the Syracuse Chapter of the ASM, and is an active member of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, National Society of Professional Engineers, and the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE). In addition to being certified in several areas of nondestructive testing, his formal certifications include STLEs "Certified Lubrication Specialist".

He is a frequent speaker for programs across North America, has written three textbooks Practical Plant Failure Analysis - a Guide to Understanding Machinery Deterioration and Improving Equipment Reliability, Failure Analysis of Gears and Bearings made Simple, and Failure Analysis of Shafts and Fasteners made Simple. He has also contributed significant sections to three other books concerning mechanical reliability and failure analysis, and has written over seventy technical articles and papers for US and European magazines and journals, primarily on failure analysis and equipment reliability. Among his honors are the RMLAs "Outstanding Contribution to the Industry" award presented in 2019.

He and his wife, Carol Adamec, a noted sculptor, hike, bike, kayak, ski and try to keep up with 10 grandchildren. He also enjoys being an NSP Ski Patroller and playing with old cars.