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E-raamat: Practical Toxicology: Evaluation, Prediction, and Risk, Third Edition

(ForthTox Limited, Linlithgow, UK),
  • Formaat: 552 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 16-Mar-2017
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781498709309
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  • Formaat: 552 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 16-Mar-2017
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781498709309

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Practical Toxicology: Evaluation, Prediction, and Risk, Third Edition shows how to conduct a program of safety evaluation and testing and then to interpret and apply the resulting data and information in the real world, beginning with the basic concepts in toxicology and progressing to the interpretation of the resulting data. Revised and updated chapters on risk assessment guide the reader to setting the foundations necessary for submission to regulatory authorities. In addition, a new chapter in the book reviews the errors in toxicology, mistakes, misuse, mismanagement, and misunderstanding with a view to avoiding these in the future.

New Chapters in the Third Edition:











Toxicology in silico





Errors in Toxicology





Safety Assessment of Extractables and Leachables.

This new edition follows a practical sequence from introducing the basics of toxicology (including the vital concept of normality in controls) to describing a test program and then interpreting the data and translating that to risk assessment that can be used in a number of real world situations where safety and secure risk assessment are essential. Although written primarily from the perspective of pharmaceutical development, the test designs and toxicological problems encountered in that field are entirely relevant to those with other classes of chemicals, the only difference being the regulatory context. Toxicology is an international discipline and the book has been written to take into account some of the differences in regulatory nuance between the main regions of the world.

Completely revised and written in an easily accessible style, the text address several audiencesfrom students and post-graduates coming to the subject for the first time to established professionals who find themselves needing to learn about toxicology, toxicity testing, interpretation of the results, and risk assessment. It is intended primarily as a textbook, with case studies and information on where to go to ask questions, but can also be used as a practical reference book. It covers all the basics of toxicology and the main aspects of safety evaluation testing and risk assessment while reviewing critically the current state of the discipline. It also provides a foundation for those seeking registration or certification.
Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxi
About the Authors xxiii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Toxicology: The Necessity of Measurement 1(36)
Introduction
1(3)
The Beginnings of Toxicological Measurement
4(4)
Safety as a Concept
4(2)
Strong Toxicants and Weak Toxicants
6(2)
The Necessity for Toxicological Assessment
8(1)
Toxicology and Toxicity Defined
9(2)
It Is Natural, so It Must Be Safe-Everyday Toxicological Conundrums
11(5)
Natural Medicines and Poisons
13(1)
Natural versus Synthetic
14(2)
General Objectives of Toxicological Study
16(2)
Biology and Outcome of Toxic Reactions
18(2)
Cellular Basis and Consequences of Toxic Change
20(4)
Expression of Toxicity
24(2)
Age
24(1)
Genetics
24(1)
Pregnancy
25(1)
Diet
25(1)
Occupation
25(1)
Disease
26(1)
Lifestyle
26(1)
Target Organ Expression of Toxicity
26(5)
Blood Supply
28(1)
Oxidative Exposure
28(1)
Cell Turnover
28(1)
Repair Ability and Reversibility
28(1)
Physiology
29(1)
Morphology
29(1)
Processing Ability
29(1)
Hormonal Control
30(1)
Accumulation
30(1)
Protection Mechanisms
30(1)
Ethics of Toxicological Assessment
31(3)
The Three Rs: Reduce, Refine, and Replace
34(2)
Summary
36(1)
References
36(1)
Chapter 2 Normality: Definition and Maintenance 37(24)
Introduction
37(1)
What Is Normality?
38(3)
Normality as a Range
41(1)
Experimental Normality
41(5)
Husbandry
43(1)
Environment
44(1)
Other Sources of Stress
44(1)
Other Sources of Experimental Variation
45(1)
Protocol Design and Procedure as Sources of Abnormality
45(1)
Control Groups as Normality
46(2)
Establishing and Maintaining Normality in Experimental Groups
48(2)
Baseline Data and Historical Controls
50(8)
Uses for Historical Control Data
51(1)
Types of Historical Control Data
51(1)
Defining a Normal Range
52(1)
Drift in Historical Control Ranges
52(1)
How Many Data Points?
53(2)
Transferability of Normality-Data from Other Laboratories
55(1)
Criteria for Comparison of Historical Controls
56(2)
Summary
58(1)
References
58(3)
Chapter 3 Determination of Toxicity: The Basic Principles 61(28)
Introduction
61(1)
Circumstances of Toxicity Testing
61(1)
Effects Sought in Toxicity Studies
62(1)
Basic Principles of Toxicological Investigation
63(14)
Objectives
63(1)
Test Substance Considerations
64(1)
Carrying System and Route of Administration
65(3)
Choice of Test System
68(2)
Study Design Basics and Confounding Factors
70(3)
Choice of Dose Levels or Test Concentrations
73(1)
Duration of Treatment
74(2)
Demonstration of Test System Exposure-Toxicokinetics
76(1)
Toxicokinetic Design
77(1)
Regulatory Framework and Influences
78(3)
Legislation, Guidelines, and Animal Use
79(1)
Legislative Influences on the Conduct of Testing
80(1)
Regulatory Conservatism-The Way Forward
80(1)
Public Perceptions
80(1)
Regulation of Study Conduct-Good Laboratory Practice
81(6)
The Basic Elements of GLP
82(1)
Facility Management
82(1)
Quality Assurance
83(1)
Standard Operating Procedures
83(1)
Facilities and Equipment
84(1)
The Study Director and Study Personnel
84(1)
The Study Plan or Protocol
85(1)
Test Item and Test System
85(1)
Raw Data
86(1)
The Study Report
86(1)
Other Aspects of GLP
87(1)
Summary
87(1)
References
87(2)
Chapter 4 Determination of Toxicity: In Vitro and Alternatives 89(30)
Introduction
89(3)
Rationale for In Vitro Toxicology
92(2)
How and When to Use In Vitro or Alternative Techniques
94(1)
Considerations in Screening Program Design
95(1)
Areas of Use of In Vitro Toxicology
95(1)
Considerations in the Development of In Vitro Tests
96(2)
Validation of In Vitro Methods
98(2)
Test Systems and Endpoints
100(3)
Target Organ Toxicity
103(5)
Liver
104(1)
Kidney
105(1)
Nervous System
106(1)
Immune System
106(1)
Other Organs
107(1)
Integrated Systems in Development
107(1)
Functional Toxicity Testing
108(1)
Pharmacology and Safety Pharmacology In Vitro
108(1)
Metabolism
109(1)
Kinetics
109(1)
Toxicity Testing
110(1)
Carcinogenicity
110(1)
Reproductive Toxicity
111(1)
Sensitization
111(1)
Irritation and Corrosion
112(1)
Phototoxicity
112(1)
Ecotoxicology
112(1)
Pitfalls in In Vitro Toxicology
113(1)
Omics
113(3)
Future Utility
116(1)
Summary
117(1)
References
117(2)
Chapter 5 Toxicology In Silico 119(14)
Introduction
119(1)
(Q)SAR Methodologies
120(4)
Model Validity
123(1)
Regulations, QSARs, and Experts
124(4)
Choosing a (Q)SAR
128(3)
Endpoints
129(1)
Commercial versus Noncommercial
130(1)
Pitfalls in In Silico Toxicology
131(1)
Summary
132(1)
References
132(1)
Chapter 6 Safety Pharmacology 133(16)
Introduction
133(1)
General Principles
134(1)
Tests to Be Conducted
134(1)
What to Test?
135(2)
Design
137(1)
Test Systems for Safety Pharmacology
138(1)
Safety Pharmacology in Toxicity Studies
138(2)
Tests and Their Conduct
140(6)
Central Nervous System-Modified Irwin Screen
140(1)
Cardiovascular System
140(4)
The hERG Inhibition Assay
142(1)
In Vivo Cardiovascular Studies
143(1)
Other Tests
144(1)
Respiratory System
144(1)
GI Tract
145(1)
Renal Function
146(1)
Pitfalls of Safety Pharmacology Studies
146(1)
Summary
147(1)
References
147(2)
Chapter 7 Determination: General and Reproductive Toxicology 149(36)
General Toxicology
149(1)
Test Systems for General Toxicology
149(3)
Study Designs in General Toxicology
152(10)
Dose Selection in General Toxicology
152(2)
Study Duration
154(1)
Parameters Measured in General Toxicology
155(6)
Assessment of Exposure
155(1)
In-Life Observations
155(1)
Clinical Pathology
156(2)
Postmortem Examinations
158(2)
Additional Examinations
160(1)
Reversibility or Recovery Studies
161(1)
Examinations for Specific Toxicities
162(5)
Immunotoxicity
162(1)
Neurotoxicity
163(2)
Respiratory Toxicology
165(1)
Dermal Toxicity
166(1)
Pitfalls in General Toxicology
167(2)
Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology
169(6)
General Principles in Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology
169(2)
Juvenile Toxicity Studies
171(1)
Test Systems for Reproductive Toxicology
172(1)
Reproductive Toxicity In Vitro
173(2)
Study Designs for Reproductive Toxicology
175(6)
Basic Design and Dose Selection
176(2)
Mating
178(1)
Group Sizes
178(1)
Parameters Measured in Reproductive Toxicology
178(7)
Fertility
179(1)
Embryonic Development
180(1)
Perinatal and Postnatal Development-Multigeneration Studies
180(1)
Pitfalls in Reproductive Toxicology
181(1)
Summary
182(1)
References
183(2)
Chapter 8 Determination: Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity 185(40)
Genotoxicity
185(17)
General Principles in Genotoxicity
185(2)
Test Battery and Study Design
187(3)
Test Systems and Tests
190(7)
In Vitro Systems: Bacterial Cultures
191(1)
In Vitro Systems: Mammalian Cells in Culture
192(2)
Ex Vivo Systems
194(1)
In Vivo Systems
194(2)
In Silico Systems
196(1)
Pitfalls in Genotoxicity
197(2)
Genotoxicity Testing In Vitro-Sensitivity and Specificity
199(3)
Carcinogenicity
202(20)
General Principles in Carcinogenicity
202(1)
Test Systems for Carcinogenicity
203(2)
Study Design and Methods of Assessment
205(1)
Choice of Dose Levels
206(1)
Parameters Measured
206(2)
Other Systems for Carcinogenicity Assessment
208(5)
Pitfalls in Carcinogenicity Studies
213(2)
Overview of the Future of Carcinogenicity Assessment
215(7)
Summary
222(1)
References
222(3)
Chapter 9 Determination: Dermal Toxicity-Sensitization, Irritation, and Corrosion 225(14)
Introduction
225(1)
General Principles of Dermal Toxicology
225(2)
Factors in Dermal Toxicity
227(2)
Test Systems
229(1)
Study Design and Parameters Measured
230(2)
Dermal Irritation and Corrosion
230(2)
Ocular Irritation
232(1)
Irritation by Other Routes
232(1)
Sensitization
232(3)
Allergic Sensitization in Guinea Pigs
233(1)
Allergic Sensitization in Mice (Local Lymph Node Assay)
234(1)
Pitfalls in Irritation and Sensitization
235(1)
Summary
236(1)
References
236(3)
Chapter 10 Determination: Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology 239(16)
Introduction
239(1)
Relevance of Environmental Assessment to Chemical Development
240(1)
General Principles of Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology
241(1)
Pollution, Routes of Entry, and Environmental Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Elimination
241(3)
Factors in Testing for Environmental Effect
244(2)
Test Systems and Study Types for Ecotoxicology
246(4)
Ecotoxicology In Vitro
246(1)
Invertebrates
247(1)
Vertebrates
248(1)
Mesocosms and Field Tests and Studies
248(2)
Environmental Assessment of Agrochemicals
250(3)
Environmental Assessment of Pharmaceuticals
251(1)
Pitfalls in Environmental Toxicology
252(1)
Summary
253(1)
References
254(1)
Chapter 11 Interpretation: Basic Principles 255(22)
Introduction
255(2)
The Interpretation Challenge
255(1)
The Scope of Interpretation
256(1)
Interpretation as a Dynamic Process
256(1)
Steps in Interpretation
257(2)
Study Design
257(1)
Controls and Expectation
258(1)
Use of Background Data in Interpretation
259(1)
Statistics and Significance in Toxicology
260(6)
Statistical Process
263(3)
Data Treatment and Transformation
266(1)
Assessing Exposure
266(6)
Integration of Exposure Information
267(3)
Toxicokinetics
270(2)
The Reality of Difference-The Interpretation of Small Differences
272(2)
The Reproducibility of Difference
274(1)
Summary
274(1)
References
275(2)
Chapter 12 Interpretation: Different Data Types 277(38)
Individual Data Sets
277(1)
Safety Pharmacology
278(1)
General Toxicology
279(7)
Toxicokinetics
282(1)
Clinical Pathology
283(3)
Hematology
284(1)
Clinical Chemistry and Urinalysis
284(2)
Morphological Pathology
286(7)
The Cell
287(1)
Subcellular Organelles
287(1)
Composition of the Cytoplasm or Cell Contents
288(1)
Plasma Membrane Changes
288(1)
Hypertrophy and Atrophy
289(1)
Hyperplasia and Metaplasia
289(1)
Changes to Whole Tissues or Organs
289(1)
Inflammation
290(1)
Changes in Blood Supply
290(1)
Repair and Reversibility
291(1)
Neoplasia
292(1)
Overview of Interpretation in General Toxicology
293(1)
Reproductive Toxicology
293(2)
Genotoxicity
295(3)
Carcinogenicity
298(3)
Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology
301(3)
Epidemiology and Occupational Toxicology
304(8)
Epidemiology
304(3)
Occupational Toxicology
307(5)
Summary
312(1)
References
312(3)
Chapter 13 Prediction of Hazard 315(18)
Introduction
315(3)
Hazard, Risk, and Human-Relevant Hazard
316(1)
Circumstances of Hazard Prediction
317(1)
Principles of Prediction
318(2)
Steps in the Prediction Process
320(4)
Basic Preliminary Questions
320(1)
Databases for Prediction-Quality and Composition
321(2)
Data Handling
323(1)
Factors for Consideration in Prediction
324(4)
Prediction from Minimal Databases
328(1)
Prediction for Individuals
329(2)
Summary
331(1)
References
332(1)
Chapter 14 Background to Risk due to Toxicity 333(18)
Introduction
333(1)
Overview of Risk Analysis
333(3)
Levels of Risk and Factors That Affect Risk
336(13)
Risk Perception
339(2)
Acceptability and Tolerability of Risk
341(2)
Comparative Risk
343(3)
Synthetic versus Natural
346(2)
Risk Expression and Quantification
348(1)
Summary
349(1)
References
349(2)
Chapter 15 Risk Assessment in Practice and Setting Exposure Limits 351(38)
Introduction
351(1)
Risk Assessment as a Process
352(1)
Data Quality
352(1)
Data Selection for Risk Assessment
353(3)
Single Effect versus General Risk Assessment
356(1)
Tools and Models in Risk Assessment
357(4)
PBPK Models and Scaling
357(3)
Models for Rodent Bioassay Data
360(1)
Target Population, Dose, and Exposure
361(4)
Prediction of Exposure
362(2)
Measurement of Exposure
364(1)
Process and Factors in Risk Assessment
365(7)
Physical Form and Formulation
365(2)
Route of Exposure
367(1)
Bioavailability
368(1)
Dose Response
368(1)
Safety Evaluation and Human Data
369(2)
Purpose and Target Population
371(1)
Setting Safety Factors and Margins
372(2)
Hazard Weighting and Safety Factors
372(2)
Safety Factor Rationale
374(1)
Exposure Limits
374(4)
Dose Level Selection for Starting Risk Assessment
378(4)
NOEL and NOAEL
378(2)
The Benchmark Dose
380(2)
Setting Exposure Limits
382(2)
Use of the Therapeutic Dose for Setting WELs/OELs for Pharmaceuticals
382(2)
Thresholds of Toxicological Concern
384(2)
Summary
386(1)
References
387(2)
Chapter 16 Safety Assessment of Extractables, Leachables, and Impurities 389(10)
Introduction
389(1)
Definitions
389(1)
Regulatory Background
390(1)
Toxicological Assessment
391(1)
Risk Assessment
392(2)
Impurities in Practice
394(3)
Summary
397(1)
References
397(2)
Chapter 17 Risk Assessment and Management in the Workplace 399(14)
Introduction
399(2)
Classification and Exposure Limits
401(1)
Factors in Workplace Risk Assessment
402(1)
Workplace Risk Assessment
402(1)
Workplace Exposure Assessment
403(2)
Risk Management in the Workplace
405(6)
Compound Categories for Containment
405(2)
The Process of Risk Management in the Workplace
407(1)
Monitoring for Exposure or Effect
408(3)
Summary
411(1)
References
411(2)
Chapter 18 Risk Assessment: Carcinogenicity, the Environment, Evolution, and Overview of Risk Assessment 413(22)
Introduction
413(1)
Risk Assessment and Carcinogenicity
414(11)
DNA Vulnerability, Genotype, and Phenotype
415(1)
Epidemiology and Background Incidence
416(2)
Data Used in Carcinogenicity Risk Assessments for Novel Chemicals
418(1)
Thresholds in Carcinogenicity and Genotoxicity
418(5)
Low-Dose Extrapolation
423(1)
Overview of Carcinogenicity Risk Assessment
423(2)
Risk Assessment and the Environment
425(4)
Factors in Environmental Risk Assessment
427(2)
International Management of Environmental Risks
429(2)
The Evolution of Risk Assessment
431(1)
Summary
432(1)
References
432(3)
Chapter 19 Evaluation of Specific Classes of Chemical 435(30)
Introduction
435(1)
Regulatory Influences
436(2)
The Basic Toxicity Test Package
438(1)
Human Pharmaceuticals
438(6)
Veterinary Pharmaceuticals
444(1)
Medical Devices
445(4)
Agrochemicals/Plant Protection Products
449(2)
Biocides
451(2)
Cosmetics
453(2)
General and Industrial Chemicals-REACH
455(5)
Tobacco Products
460(2)
Summary
462(1)
References
463(2)
Chapter 20 Errors in Toxicology 465(18)
Introduction
465(1)
Errors through the Ages
466(1)
A Brief History of Early Regulations
467(1)
Modern Mistakes and Mismanagement
468(6)
Clinical Trials with New Medicinal Products
471(1)
Contamination
471(3)
Misunderstanding
474(3)
Correlation, Causation, and Statistics
474(3)
The Public and Toxicology
477(2)
Toxicology and the Internet
477(2)
Summary
479(1)
References
480(3)
Chapter 21 The Future of Toxicity Testing and Risk Assessment 483(18)
Introduction
483(1)
Challenges for Toxicology
484(1)
Evolution of Toxicity Testing
485(1)
Development of New Test Methods and Models
486(2)
The Future of Toxicity Testing
488(4)
The Tools Available and Their Problems
488(1)
Toxicology In Silico
489(1)
In Vitro Systems
489(1)
In Vivo: Animals in Toxicity Testing
490(2)
A New Paradigm for Safety Evaluation
492(2)
What Will the Future of Testing Look Like?
494(1)
Challenges for Risk Assessment and Management
495(1)
Evolution of Risk Assessment
495(2)
Summary
497(1)
References
498(3)
Glossary 501(6)
Index 507
Woolley, David; Woolley, Adam