Preface |
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xix | |
Acknowledgments |
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xxi | |
About the Authors |
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xxiii | |
Chapter 1 Introduction to Toxicology: The Necessity of Measurement |
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1 | (36) |
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1 | (3) |
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The Beginnings of Toxicological Measurement |
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4 | (4) |
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4 | (2) |
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Strong Toxicants and Weak Toxicants |
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6 | (2) |
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The Necessity for Toxicological Assessment |
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8 | (1) |
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Toxicology and Toxicity Defined |
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9 | (2) |
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It Is Natural, so It Must Be Safe-Everyday Toxicological Conundrums |
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11 | (5) |
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Natural Medicines and Poisons |
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13 | (1) |
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14 | (2) |
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General Objectives of Toxicological Study |
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16 | (2) |
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Biology and Outcome of Toxic Reactions |
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18 | (2) |
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Cellular Basis and Consequences of Toxic Change |
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20 | (4) |
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24 | (2) |
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24 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
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26 | (1) |
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26 | (1) |
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Target Organ Expression of Toxicity |
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26 | (5) |
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28 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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Repair Ability and Reversibility |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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30 | (1) |
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30 | (1) |
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30 | (1) |
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Ethics of Toxicological Assessment |
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31 | (3) |
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The Three Rs: Reduce, Refine, and Replace |
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34 | (2) |
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36 | (1) |
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36 | (1) |
Chapter 2 Normality: Definition and Maintenance |
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37 | (24) |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (3) |
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41 | (1) |
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41 | (5) |
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43 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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Other Sources of Experimental Variation |
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45 | (1) |
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Protocol Design and Procedure as Sources of Abnormality |
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45 | (1) |
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Control Groups as Normality |
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46 | (2) |
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Establishing and Maintaining Normality in Experimental Groups |
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48 | (2) |
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Baseline Data and Historical Controls |
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50 | (8) |
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Uses for Historical Control Data |
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51 | (1) |
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Types of Historical Control Data |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (1) |
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Drift in Historical Control Ranges |
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52 | (1) |
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53 | (2) |
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Transferability of Normality-Data from Other Laboratories |
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55 | (1) |
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Criteria for Comparison of Historical Controls |
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56 | (2) |
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58 | (1) |
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58 | (3) |
Chapter 3 Determination of Toxicity: The Basic Principles |
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61 | (28) |
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61 | (1) |
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Circumstances of Toxicity Testing |
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61 | (1) |
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Effects Sought in Toxicity Studies |
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62 | (1) |
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Basic Principles of Toxicological Investigation |
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63 | (14) |
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63 | (1) |
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Test Substance Considerations |
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64 | (1) |
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Carrying System and Route of Administration |
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65 | (3) |
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68 | (2) |
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Study Design Basics and Confounding Factors |
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70 | (3) |
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Choice of Dose Levels or Test Concentrations |
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73 | (1) |
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74 | (2) |
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Demonstration of Test System Exposure-Toxicokinetics |
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76 | (1) |
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77 | (1) |
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Regulatory Framework and Influences |
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78 | (3) |
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Legislation, Guidelines, and Animal Use |
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79 | (1) |
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Legislative Influences on the Conduct of Testing |
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80 | (1) |
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Regulatory Conservatism-The Way Forward |
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80 | (1) |
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80 | (1) |
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Regulation of Study Conduct-Good Laboratory Practice |
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81 | (6) |
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The Basic Elements of GLP |
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82 | (1) |
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82 | (1) |
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83 | (1) |
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Standard Operating Procedures |
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83 | (1) |
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84 | (1) |
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The Study Director and Study Personnel |
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84 | (1) |
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The Study Plan or Protocol |
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85 | (1) |
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Test Item and Test System |
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85 | (1) |
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86 | (1) |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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87 | (2) |
Chapter 4 Determination of Toxicity: In Vitro and Alternatives |
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89 | (30) |
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89 | (3) |
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Rationale for In Vitro Toxicology |
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92 | (2) |
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How and When to Use In Vitro or Alternative Techniques |
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94 | (1) |
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Considerations in Screening Program Design |
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95 | (1) |
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Areas of Use of In Vitro Toxicology |
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95 | (1) |
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Considerations in the Development of In Vitro Tests |
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96 | (2) |
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Validation of In Vitro Methods |
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98 | (2) |
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Test Systems and Endpoints |
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100 | (3) |
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103 | (5) |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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107 | (1) |
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Integrated Systems in Development |
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107 | (1) |
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Functional Toxicity Testing |
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108 | (1) |
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Pharmacology and Safety Pharmacology In Vitro |
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108 | (1) |
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109 | (1) |
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109 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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111 | (1) |
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111 | (1) |
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112 | (1) |
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112 | (1) |
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112 | (1) |
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Pitfalls in In Vitro Toxicology |
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113 | (1) |
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113 | (3) |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (1) |
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117 | (2) |
Chapter 5 Toxicology In Silico |
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119 | (14) |
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119 | (1) |
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120 | (4) |
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123 | (1) |
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Regulations, QSARs, and Experts |
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124 | (4) |
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128 | (3) |
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129 | (1) |
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Commercial versus Noncommercial |
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130 | (1) |
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Pitfalls in In Silico Toxicology |
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131 | (1) |
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132 | (1) |
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132 | (1) |
Chapter 6 Safety Pharmacology |
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133 | (16) |
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133 | (1) |
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134 | (1) |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (2) |
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137 | (1) |
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Test Systems for Safety Pharmacology |
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138 | (1) |
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Safety Pharmacology in Toxicity Studies |
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138 | (2) |
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140 | (6) |
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Central Nervous System-Modified Irwin Screen |
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140 | (1) |
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140 | (4) |
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The hERG Inhibition Assay |
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142 | (1) |
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In Vivo Cardiovascular Studies |
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143 | (1) |
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144 | (1) |
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144 | (1) |
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145 | (1) |
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146 | (1) |
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Pitfalls of Safety Pharmacology Studies |
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146 | (1) |
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147 | (1) |
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147 | (2) |
Chapter 7 Determination: General and Reproductive Toxicology |
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149 | (36) |
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149 | (1) |
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Test Systems for General Toxicology |
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149 | (3) |
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Study Designs in General Toxicology |
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152 | (10) |
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Dose Selection in General Toxicology |
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152 | (2) |
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154 | (1) |
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Parameters Measured in General Toxicology |
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155 | (6) |
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155 | (1) |
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155 | (1) |
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156 | (2) |
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158 | (2) |
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160 | (1) |
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Reversibility or Recovery Studies |
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161 | (1) |
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Examinations for Specific Toxicities |
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162 | (5) |
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162 | (1) |
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163 | (2) |
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165 | (1) |
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166 | (1) |
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Pitfalls in General Toxicology |
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167 | (2) |
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Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology |
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169 | (6) |
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General Principles in Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology |
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169 | (2) |
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Juvenile Toxicity Studies |
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171 | (1) |
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Test Systems for Reproductive Toxicology |
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172 | (1) |
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Reproductive Toxicity In Vitro |
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173 | (2) |
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Study Designs for Reproductive Toxicology |
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175 | (6) |
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Basic Design and Dose Selection |
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176 | (2) |
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178 | (1) |
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178 | (1) |
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Parameters Measured in Reproductive Toxicology |
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178 | (7) |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (1) |
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Perinatal and Postnatal Development-Multigeneration Studies |
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180 | (1) |
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Pitfalls in Reproductive Toxicology |
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181 | (1) |
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182 | (1) |
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183 | (2) |
Chapter 8 Determination: Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity |
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185 | (40) |
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185 | (17) |
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General Principles in Genotoxicity |
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185 | (2) |
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Test Battery and Study Design |
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187 | (3) |
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190 | (7) |
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In Vitro Systems: Bacterial Cultures |
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191 | (1) |
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In Vitro Systems: Mammalian Cells in Culture |
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192 | (2) |
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194 | (1) |
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194 | (2) |
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196 | (1) |
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197 | (2) |
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Genotoxicity Testing In Vitro-Sensitivity and Specificity |
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199 | (3) |
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202 | (20) |
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General Principles in Carcinogenicity |
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202 | (1) |
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Test Systems for Carcinogenicity |
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203 | (2) |
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Study Design and Methods of Assessment |
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205 | (1) |
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206 | (1) |
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206 | (2) |
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Other Systems for Carcinogenicity Assessment |
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208 | (5) |
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Pitfalls in Carcinogenicity Studies |
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213 | (2) |
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Overview of the Future of Carcinogenicity Assessment |
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215 | (7) |
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222 | (1) |
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222 | (3) |
Chapter 9 Determination: Dermal Toxicity-Sensitization, Irritation, and Corrosion |
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225 | (14) |
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225 | (1) |
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General Principles of Dermal Toxicology |
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225 | (2) |
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Factors in Dermal Toxicity |
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227 | (2) |
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229 | (1) |
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Study Design and Parameters Measured |
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230 | (2) |
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Dermal Irritation and Corrosion |
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230 | (2) |
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232 | (1) |
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Irritation by Other Routes |
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232 | (1) |
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232 | (3) |
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Allergic Sensitization in Guinea Pigs |
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233 | (1) |
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Allergic Sensitization in Mice (Local Lymph Node Assay) |
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234 | (1) |
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Pitfalls in Irritation and Sensitization |
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235 | (1) |
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236 | (1) |
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236 | (3) |
Chapter 10 Determination: Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology |
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239 | (16) |
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239 | (1) |
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Relevance of Environmental Assessment to Chemical Development |
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240 | (1) |
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General Principles of Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology |
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241 | (1) |
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Pollution, Routes of Entry, and Environmental Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Elimination |
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241 | (3) |
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Factors in Testing for Environmental Effect |
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244 | (2) |
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Test Systems and Study Types for Ecotoxicology |
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246 | (4) |
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246 | (1) |
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247 | (1) |
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248 | (1) |
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Mesocosms and Field Tests and Studies |
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248 | (2) |
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Environmental Assessment of Agrochemicals |
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250 | (3) |
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Environmental Assessment of Pharmaceuticals |
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251 | (1) |
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Pitfalls in Environmental Toxicology |
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252 | (1) |
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253 | (1) |
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254 | (1) |
Chapter 11 Interpretation: Basic Principles |
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255 | (22) |
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255 | (2) |
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The Interpretation Challenge |
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255 | (1) |
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The Scope of Interpretation |
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256 | (1) |
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Interpretation as a Dynamic Process |
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256 | (1) |
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257 | (2) |
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257 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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Use of Background Data in Interpretation |
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259 | (1) |
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Statistics and Significance in Toxicology |
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260 | (6) |
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263 | (3) |
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Data Treatment and Transformation |
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266 | (1) |
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266 | (6) |
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Integration of Exposure Information |
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267 | (3) |
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270 | (2) |
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The Reality of Difference-The Interpretation of Small Differences |
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272 | (2) |
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The Reproducibility of Difference |
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274 | (1) |
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274 | (1) |
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275 | (2) |
Chapter 12 Interpretation: Different Data Types |
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277 | (38) |
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277 | (1) |
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278 | (1) |
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279 | (7) |
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282 | (1) |
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283 | (3) |
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284 | (1) |
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Clinical Chemistry and Urinalysis |
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284 | (2) |
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286 | (7) |
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287 | (1) |
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287 | (1) |
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Composition of the Cytoplasm or Cell Contents |
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288 | (1) |
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288 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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Hyperplasia and Metaplasia |
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289 | (1) |
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Changes to Whole Tissues or Organs |
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289 | (1) |
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290 | (1) |
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290 | (1) |
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291 | (1) |
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292 | (1) |
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Overview of Interpretation in General Toxicology |
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293 | (1) |
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293 | (2) |
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295 | (3) |
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298 | (3) |
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Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology |
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301 | (3) |
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Epidemiology and Occupational Toxicology |
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304 | (8) |
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304 | (3) |
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307 | (5) |
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312 | (1) |
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312 | (3) |
Chapter 13 Prediction of Hazard |
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315 | (18) |
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315 | (3) |
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Hazard, Risk, and Human-Relevant Hazard |
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316 | (1) |
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Circumstances of Hazard Prediction |
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317 | (1) |
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318 | (2) |
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Steps in the Prediction Process |
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320 | (4) |
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Basic Preliminary Questions |
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320 | (1) |
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Databases for Prediction-Quality and Composition |
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321 | (2) |
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323 | (1) |
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Factors for Consideration in Prediction |
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324 | (4) |
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Prediction from Minimal Databases |
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328 | (1) |
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Prediction for Individuals |
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329 | (2) |
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331 | (1) |
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332 | (1) |
Chapter 14 Background to Risk due to Toxicity |
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333 | (18) |
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333 | (1) |
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Overview of Risk Analysis |
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333 | (3) |
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Levels of Risk and Factors That Affect Risk |
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336 | (13) |
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339 | (2) |
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Acceptability and Tolerability of Risk |
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341 | (2) |
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343 | (3) |
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346 | (2) |
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Risk Expression and Quantification |
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348 | (1) |
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349 | (1) |
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349 | (2) |
Chapter 15 Risk Assessment in Practice and Setting Exposure Limits |
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351 | (38) |
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351 | (1) |
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Risk Assessment as a Process |
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352 | (1) |
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352 | (1) |
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Data Selection for Risk Assessment |
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353 | (3) |
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Single Effect versus General Risk Assessment |
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356 | (1) |
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Tools and Models in Risk Assessment |
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357 | (4) |
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357 | (3) |
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Models for Rodent Bioassay Data |
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360 | (1) |
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Target Population, Dose, and Exposure |
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361 | (4) |
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362 | (2) |
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364 | (1) |
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Process and Factors in Risk Assessment |
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365 | (7) |
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Physical Form and Formulation |
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365 | (2) |
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367 | (1) |
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368 | (1) |
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368 | (1) |
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Safety Evaluation and Human Data |
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369 | (2) |
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Purpose and Target Population |
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371 | (1) |
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Setting Safety Factors and Margins |
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372 | (2) |
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Hazard Weighting and Safety Factors |
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372 | (2) |
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374 | (1) |
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374 | (4) |
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Dose Level Selection for Starting Risk Assessment |
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378 | (4) |
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378 | (2) |
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380 | (2) |
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382 | (2) |
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Use of the Therapeutic Dose for Setting WELs/OELs for Pharmaceuticals |
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382 | (2) |
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Thresholds of Toxicological Concern |
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384 | (2) |
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386 | (1) |
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|
387 | (2) |
Chapter 16 Safety Assessment of Extractables, Leachables, and Impurities |
|
389 | (10) |
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389 | (1) |
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389 | (1) |
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390 | (1) |
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391 | (1) |
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392 | (2) |
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394 | (3) |
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397 | (1) |
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397 | (2) |
Chapter 17 Risk Assessment and Management in the Workplace |
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399 | (14) |
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399 | (2) |
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Classification and Exposure Limits |
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401 | (1) |
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Factors in Workplace Risk Assessment |
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402 | (1) |
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Workplace Risk Assessment |
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402 | (1) |
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Workplace Exposure Assessment |
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403 | (2) |
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Risk Management in the Workplace |
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405 | (6) |
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Compound Categories for Containment |
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405 | (2) |
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The Process of Risk Management in the Workplace |
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407 | (1) |
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Monitoring for Exposure or Effect |
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|
408 | (3) |
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411 | (1) |
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411 | (2) |
Chapter 18 Risk Assessment: Carcinogenicity, the Environment, Evolution, and Overview of Risk Assessment |
|
413 | (22) |
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|
413 | (1) |
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Risk Assessment and Carcinogenicity |
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414 | (11) |
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DNA Vulnerability, Genotype, and Phenotype |
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|
415 | (1) |
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Epidemiology and Background Incidence |
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|
416 | (2) |
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Data Used in Carcinogenicity Risk Assessments for Novel Chemicals |
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|
418 | (1) |
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Thresholds in Carcinogenicity and Genotoxicity |
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|
418 | (5) |
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423 | (1) |
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Overview of Carcinogenicity Risk Assessment |
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|
423 | (2) |
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Risk Assessment and the Environment |
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|
425 | (4) |
|
Factors in Environmental Risk Assessment |
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|
427 | (2) |
|
International Management of Environmental Risks |
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|
429 | (2) |
|
The Evolution of Risk Assessment |
|
|
431 | (1) |
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|
432 | (1) |
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|
432 | (3) |
Chapter 19 Evaluation of Specific Classes of Chemical |
|
435 | (30) |
|
|
435 | (1) |
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|
436 | (2) |
|
The Basic Toxicity Test Package |
|
|
438 | (1) |
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|
438 | (6) |
|
Veterinary Pharmaceuticals |
|
|
444 | (1) |
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|
445 | (4) |
|
Agrochemicals/Plant Protection Products |
|
|
449 | (2) |
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|
451 | (2) |
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|
453 | (2) |
|
General and Industrial Chemicals-REACH |
|
|
455 | (5) |
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|
460 | (2) |
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|
462 | (1) |
|
|
463 | (2) |
Chapter 20 Errors in Toxicology |
|
465 | (18) |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
A Brief History of Early Regulations |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
Modern Mistakes and Mismanagement |
|
|
468 | (6) |
|
Clinical Trials with New Medicinal Products |
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
|
471 | (3) |
|
|
474 | (3) |
|
Correlation, Causation, and Statistics |
|
|
474 | (3) |
|
The Public and Toxicology |
|
|
477 | (2) |
|
Toxicology and the Internet |
|
|
477 | (2) |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
|
480 | (3) |
Chapter 21 The Future of Toxicity Testing and Risk Assessment |
|
483 | (18) |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
Challenges for Toxicology |
|
|
484 | (1) |
|
Evolution of Toxicity Testing |
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
Development of New Test Methods and Models |
|
|
486 | (2) |
|
The Future of Toxicity Testing |
|
|
488 | (4) |
|
The Tools Available and Their Problems |
|
|
488 | (1) |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
In Vivo: Animals in Toxicity Testing |
|
|
490 | (2) |
|
A New Paradigm for Safety Evaluation |
|
|
492 | (2) |
|
What Will the Future of Testing Look Like? |
|
|
494 | (1) |
|
Challenges for Risk Assessment and Management |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
Evolution of Risk Assessment |
|
|
495 | (2) |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
|
498 | (3) |
Glossary |
|
501 | (6) |
Index |
|
507 | |