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E-raamat: Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, Fourth Edition

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(PPL, Inc., Allentown, Pennsylvania, USA), (Consultant, Bothell, Washington, USA)
  • Formaat: 695 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 11-Feb-2014
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781498760003
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Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, Fourth EditionSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: 695 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 11-Feb-2014
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • Keel: eng
  • ISBN-13: 9781498760003
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"For many years, Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications has been the go-to text for gaining proficiency in the technological fundamentals of power system protection. Continuing in the bestselling tradition of the previous editions by the late J. Lewis Blackburn, the Fourth Edition retains the core concepts at the heart of power system analysis. Featuring refinements and additions to accommodate recent technological progress, the text:Explores developments in the creation of smarter, more flexible protective systems based on advances in the computational power of digital devices and the capabilities of communication systems that can be applied within the power gridExamines the regulations related to power system protection and how they impact the way protective relaying systems are designed, applied, set, and monitoredConsiders the evaluation of protective systems during system disturbances and describes the tools available for analysisAddresses the benefits and problems associated with applyingmicroprocessor-based devices in protection schemesContains an expanded discussion of intertie protection requirements at dispersed generation facilitiesProviding information on a mixture of old and new equipment, Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, Fourth Edition reflects the present state of power systems currently in operation, making it a handy reference for practicing protection engineers. And yet its challenging end-of-chapter problems, coverage of the basic mathematical requirements for fault analysis, and real-world examples ensure engineering students receive a practical, effective education on protective systems. Plus, with the inclusion of a solutions manual and figure slides with qualifying course adoption, the Fourth Edition is ready-made for classroom implementation"--



For many years, Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications has been the go-to text for gaining proficiency in the technological fundamentals of power system protection. Continuing in the bestselling tradition of the previous editions by the late J. Lewis Blackburn, the Fourth Edition retains the core concepts at the heart of power system analysis. Featuring refinements and additions to accommodate recent technological progress, the text:

  • Explores developments in the creation of smarter, more flexible protective systems based on advances in the computational power of digital devices and the capabilities of communication systems that can be applied within the power grid
  • Examines the regulations related to power system protection and how they impact the way protective relaying systems are designed, applied, set, and monitored
  • Considers the evaluation of protective systems during system disturbances and describes the tools available for analysis
  • Addresses the benefits and problems associated with applying microprocessor-based devices in protection schemes
  • Contains an expanded discussion of intertie protection requirements at dispersed generation facilities

Providing information on a mixture of old and new equipment, Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, Fourth Edition reflects the present state of power systems currently in operation, making it a handy reference for practicing protection engineers. And yet its challenging end-of-chapter problems, coverage of the basic mathematical requirements for fault analysis, and real-world examples ensure engineering students receive a practical, effective education on protective systems. Plus, with the inclusion of a solutions manual and figure slides with qualifying course adoption, the Fourth Edition is ready-made for classroom implementation.

Arvustused

"... provides a solid foundation for the master-level student as well as power engineers new to protection principles, and it is most certainly a valuable reference for the experienced protection engineer. This book provides enough information of historical applications to aid the reader in understanding the protection in service today. The material is presented clearly with examples to provide practice of the fundamentals presented." Miriam P. Sanders, from IEEE Power & Energy Magazine, September/October 2015

"The book describes in a very comprehensive and efficient way main problems of power system protection. The protection principles, criteria as well as relay setting calculation rules are explained in detail, with use of many practical examples. The reader receives a book with all practical knowledge in the field in one band." Prof. Waldemar Rebizant, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, PL

"The book addresses interesting and timely topics. By analyzing the review materials I feel that the book is based on a proper fusion of technology and methodology. Besides, I expect that it implements an effective balance between power system protection theory and engineering practice. For this reason Id like to express a positive opinion about the book project." Alfredo Vaccaro, Department of Engineering University of Sannio, Benevento, Italy

Preface to the Fourth Edition xxi
Preface to the Third Edition xxiii
Preface to the Second Edition xxv
Preface to the First Edition xxvii
Author xxix
Chapter 1 Introduction and General Philosophies 1(36)
1.1 Introduction and Definitions
1.2 Typical Protective Relays and Relay Systems
5(3)
1.3 Typical Power Circuit Breakers
8(3)
1.4 Nomenclature and Device Numbers
11(5)
1.5 Typical Relay and Circuit Breaker Connections
16(1)
1.6 Basic Objectives of System Protection
17(5)
1.6.1 Reliability
19(1)
1.6.2 Selectivity
20(1)
1.6.3 Speed
20(1)
1.6.4 Simplicity
21(1)
1.6.5 Economics
21(1)
1.6.6 General Summary
22(1)
1.7 Factors Affecting the Protection System
22(1)
1.7.1 Economics
22(1)
1.7.2 Personality Factor
22(1)
1.7.3 Location of Disconnecting and Input Devices
23(1)
1.7.4 Available Fault Indicators
23(1)
1.8 Classification of Relays
23(2)
1.8.1 Protective Relays
23(1)
1.8.2 Regulating Relays
24(1)
1.8.3 Reclosing, Synchronism Check, and Synchronizing Relays
24(1)
1.8.4 Monitoring Relays
24(1)
1.8.5 Auxiliary Relays
24(1)
1.8.6 Other Relay Classifications
24(1)
1.9 Protective Relay Performance
25(1)
1.9.1 Correct Operation
25(1)
1.9.2 Incorrect Operation
25(1)
1.9.3 No Conclusion
26(1)
1.9.4 Tracking Relay Performance
26(1)
1.10 Principles of Relay Application
26(2)
1.11 Information for Application
28(2)
1.11.1 System Configuration
28(1)
1.11.2 Impedance and Connection of the Power Equipment, System Frequency, System Voltage, and System Phase Sequence
29(1)
1.11.3 Existing Protection and Problems
29(1)
1.11.4 Operating Procedures and Practices
29(1)
1.11.5 Importance of the System Equipment Being Protected
29(1)
1.11.6 System Fault Study
29(1)
1.11.7 Maximum Loads and System Swing Limits
30(1)
1.11.8 Current and Voltage Transformer Locations, Connections, and Ratios
30(1)
1.11.9 Future Expansion
30(1)
1.12 Structural Changes within the Electric Power Industry
30(2)
1.13 Reliability and Protection Standards
32(2)
1.13.1 Regulatory Agencies
33(1)
Bibliography
34(3)
Chapter 2 Fundamental Units: Per-Unit and Percent Values 37(14)
2.1 Introduction
37(1)
2.2 Per-Unit and Percent Definitions
37(1)
2.3 Advantages of Per Unit and Percent
38(1)
2.4 General Relations between Circuit Quantities
38(2)
2.5 Base Quantities
40(1)
2.6 Per-Unit and Percent Impedance Relations
41(1)
2.7 Per-Unit and Percent Impedances of Transformer Units
42(3)
2.7.1 Transformer Bank Example
44(1)
2.8 Per-Unit and Percent Impedances of Generators
45(1)
2.9 Per-Unit and Percent Impedances of Overhead Lines
46(1)
2.10 Changing Per-Unit (Percent) Quantities to Different Bases
46(3)
2.10.1 Example: Base Conversion with Equation 2.34
47(1)
2.10.2 Example: Base Conversion Requiring Equation 2.33
48(1)
Bibliography
49(2)
Chapter 3 Phasors and Polarity 51(20)
3.1 Introduction
51(1)
3.2 Phasors
51(5)
3.2.1 Phasor Representation
51(2)
3.2.2 Phasor Diagrams for Sinusoidal Quantities
53(1)
3.2.3 Combining Phasors
53(1)
3.2.4 Phasor Diagrams Require a Circuit Diagram
54(1)
3.2.5 Nomenclature for Current and Voltage
54(2)
3.2.5.1 Current and Flux
54(1)
3.2.5.2 Voltage
55(1)
3.2.6 Phasor Diagram
56(1)
3.3 Circuit and Phasor Diagrams for a Balanced Three-Phase Power System
56(2)
3.4 Phasor and Phase Rotation
58(1)
3.5 Polarity
58(5)
3.5.1 Transformer Polarity
58(3)
3.5.2 Relay Polarity
61(2)
3.6 Application of Polarity for Phase-Fault Directional Sensing
63(3)
3.6.1 90°-60° Connection for Phase-Fault Protection
64(2)
3.7 Directional Sensing for Ground Faults: Voltage Polarization
66(1)
3.8 Directional Sensing for Ground Faults: Current Polarization
67(1)
3.9 Other Directional-Sensing Connections
68(1)
3.10 Application Aspects of Directional Relaying
69(1)
3.11 Summary
70(1)
Chapter 4 Symmetrical Components: A Review 71(74)
4.1 Introduction and Background
71(1)
4.2 Positive-Sequence Set
72(1)
4.3 Nomenclature Convenience
73(1)
4.4 Negative-Sequence Set
73(1)
4.5 Zero-Sequence Set
74(1)
4.6 General Equations
74(1)
4.7 Sequence Independence
75(1)
4.8 Positive-Sequence Sources
76(2)
4.9 Sequence Networks
78(7)
4.9.1 Positive-Sequence Network
78(2)
4.9.2 Negative-Sequence Network
80(2)
4.9.3 Zero-Sequence Network
82(2)
4.9.4 Sequence Network Reduction
84(1)
4.10 Shunt Unbalance Sequence Network Interconnections
85(6)
4.10.1 Fault Impedance
85(1)
4.10.2 Substation and Tower-Footing Impedance
86(1)
4.10.3 Sequence Interconnections for Three-Phase Faults
86(1)
4.10.4 Sequence Interconnections for Single-Phase-to-Ground Faults
87(1)
4.10.5 Sequence Interconnections for Phase-to-Phase Faults
88(1)
4.10.6 Sequence Interconnections for Double-Phase-to-Ground Faults
89(1)
4.10.7 Other Sequence Interconnections for Shunt System Conditions
90(1)
4.11 Example: Fault Calculations on a Typical System Shown in Figure 4.16
91(4)
4.11.1 Three-Phase Fault at Bus G
93(1)
4.11.2 Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault at Bus G
94(1)
4.12 Example: Fault Calculation for Autotransformers
95(4)
4.12.1 Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault at H Calculation
97(2)
4.13 Example: Open-Phase Conductor
99(1)
4.14 Example: Open-Phase Falling to Ground on One Side
99(3)
4.15 Series and Simultaneous Unbalances
102(1)
4.16 Overview
103(8)
4.16.1 Voltage and Current Phasors for Shunt Faults
103(1)
4.16.2 System Voltage Profiles during Faults
104(3)
4.16.3 Unbalanced Currents in the Unfaulted Phases for Phase-to-Ground Faults in Loop Systems
107(1)
4.16.4 Voltage and Current Fault Phasors for All Combinations of the Different Faults
108(3)
4.17 Summary
111(1)
Bibliography
112(1)
Appendix 4.1 Short-Circuit MVA and Equivalent Impedance
113(2)
Appendix 4.2 Impedance and Sequence Connections for Transformer Banks
115(7)
Appendix 4.3 Sequence Phase Shifts through Wye–Delta Transformer Banks
122(3)
Appendix 4.4 Impedance of Overhead Lines
125(16)
Appendix 4.5 Zero-Sequence Impedance of Transformers
141(4)
Chapter 5 Relay Input Sources 145(28)
5.1 Introduction
145(1)
5.2 Equivalent Circuits of Current and Voltage Transformers
145(5)
5.3 CTs for Protection Applications
150(1)
5.4 CT Performance on a Symmetrical AC Component
150(5)
5.4.1 Performance by Classic Analysis
151(1)
5.4.2 Performance by CT Characteristic Curves
151(1)
5.4.3 Performance by ANSI/IEEE Standard Accuracy Classes
151(4)
5.4.4 IEC Standard Accuracy Classes
155(1)
5.5 Secondary Burdens during Faults
155(2)
5.6 CT Selection and Performance Evaluation for Phase Faults
157(4)
5.6.1 CT Ratio Selection for Phase-Connected Equipment
157(1)
5.6.2 Select the Relay Tap for the Phase–Overcurrent Relays
157(1)
5.6.3 Determine the Total Connected Secondary Load (Burden) in Ohms
158(1)
5.6.4 Determine the CT Performance Using the ANSI/IEEE Standard
158(7)
5.6.4.1 When Using a Class T CT
158(1)
5.6.4.2 When Using a Class C CT and Performance by the ANSI/IEEE Standard
159(1)
5.6.4.3 When Using a Class C CT and Performance with the CT Excitation Curves
160(1)
5.7 Performance Evaluation for Ground Relays
161(1)
5.8 Effect of Unenergized CTs on Performance
161(2)
5.9 Flux Summation Current Transformer
163(1)
5.10 Current Transformer Performance on the DC Component
164(1)
5.11 Summary: Current Transformer Performance Evaluation
165(2)
5.11.1 Saturation on Symmetrical AC Current Input Resulting from the CT Characteristics and the Secondary Load
165(1)
5.11.2 Saturation by the DC Offset of the Primary AC Current
166(1)
5.12 Current Transformer Residual Flux and Subsidence Transients
167(1)
5.13 Auxiliary Current Transformers in CT Secondary Circuits
168(1)
5.14 Voltage Transformers for Protective Applications
169(1)
5.15 Optical Sensors
170(2)
Bibliography
172(1)
Chapter 6 Protection Fundamentals and Basic Design Principles 173(26)
6.1 Introduction
173(1)
6.2 Differential Principle
173(3)
6.3 Overcurrent–Distance Protection and the Basic Protection Problem
176(2)
6.3.1 Time Solution
177(1)
6.3.2 Communication Solution
178(1)
6.4 Backup Protection: Remote versus Local
178(1)
6.5 Basic Design Principles
179(17)
6.5.1 Time–Overcurrent Relays
179(3)
6.5.2 Instantaneous Current–Voltage Relays
182(2)
6.5.3 Directional-Sensing Power Relays
184(1)
6.5.4 Polar Unit
184(1)
6.5.5 Phase Distance Relays
185(1)
6.5.5.1 Balanced Beam Type: Impedance Characteristic
185(1)
6.5.6 R–X Diagram
186(1)
6.5.7 Mho Characteristic
186(3)
6.5.8 Single-Phase Mho Units
189(1)
6.5.9 Polyphase Mho Units
190(2)
6.5.9.1 Three-Phase Fault Units
190(2)
6.5.9.2 Phase-to-Phase Fault Units
192(1)
6.5.10 Other Mho Units
192(2)
6.5.11 Reactance Units
194(1)
6.6 Ground Distance Relays
194(2)
6.7 Solid-State Microprocessor Relays
196(2)
6.8 Summary
198(1)
Bibliography
198(1)
Chapter 7 System-Grounding Principles 199(36)
7.1 Introduction
199(1)
7.2 Ungrounded Systems
199(4)
7.3 Transient Overvoltages
203(1)
7.4 Grounded-Detection Methods for Ungrounded Systems
204(4)
7.4.1 Three Voltage Transformers
204(2)
7.4.2 Single-Voltage Transformers
206(2)
7.5 High-Impedance Grounding Systems
208(10)
7.5.1 Resonant Grounding
208(1)
7.5.2 High-Resistance Grounding
209(1)
7.5.3 Example: Typical High-Resistance Neutral Grounding
210(5)
7.5.4 Example: Typical High-Resistance Grounding with Three Distribution Transformers
215(3)
7.6 System Grounding for Mine or Other Hazardous-Type Applications
218(1)
7.7 Low-Impedance Grounding
218(5)
7.7.1 Example: Typical Low-Resistance Neutral Reactor Grounding
221(1)
7.7.2 Example: Typical Low-Resistance Neutral Resistance Grounding
222(1)
7.8 Solid (Effective) Grounding
223(2)
7.8.1 Example: Solid Grounding
223(2)
7.8.2 Ground Detection on Solid-Grounded Systems
225(1)
7.9 Ferroresonance in Three-Phase Power Systems
225(5)
7.9.1 General Summary for Ferroresonance for Distribution Systems
229(1)
7.9.2 Ferroresonance at High Voltages
229(1)
7.10 Safety Grounding
230(1)
7.11 Grounding Summary and Recommendations
231(2)
Bibliography
233(2)
Chapter 8 Generator Protection/Intertie Protection for Distributed Generation 235(60)
8.1 Introduction
235(5)
8.1.1 Historical Perspectives
235(2)
8.1.2 Bulk Power Generators
237(1)
8.1.3 Distributed Generators
238(1)
8.1.4 Potential Problems
239(1)
8.2 Generator Connections and Overview of Typical Protection
240(2)
8.3 Stator Phase-Fault Protection for All Size Generators
242(8)
8.3.1 Differential Protection (87) for Small kVA (MVA) Generators
242(1)
8.3.2 Multi-CT Differential Protection (87) for All Size Generators
243(3)
8.3.3 High-Impedance Voltage Differential Protection for Generators
246(1)
8.3.4 Direct-Connected Generator Current Differential Example
246(1)
8.3.5 Phase Protection for Small Generators That Do Not Use Differentials
247(1)
8.3.6 Unit Generator Current Differential (87) Example for Phase Protection
248(2)
8.4 Unit Transformer Phase-Fault Differential Protection (87TG)
250(1)
8.5 Phase-Fault Backup Protection (51 V) or (21)
251(1)
8.5.1 Voltage-Controlled or Voltage-Restraint Time-Overcurrent (51 V) Backup Protection
251(1)
8.5.2 Phase Distance (21) Backup Protection
252(1)
8.6 Negative-Sequence Current Backup Protection
252(1)
8.7 Stator Ground-Fault Protection
253(8)
8.7.1 Ground-Fault Protection for Single Medium or Small Wye-Connected Generators (Type la: See Figures 8.3 and 8.11)
253(1)
8.7.2 Ground-Fault Protection of Multiple Medium or Small Wye- or Delta-Connected Generators (Type 2: See Figures 8.2 and 8.12)
254(1)
8.7.3 Ground-Fault Protection for Ungrounded Generators
255(1)
8.7.4 Ground-Fault Protection for Very Small, Solidly Grounded Generators
256(1)
8.7.5 Ground-Fault Protection for Unit-Connected Generators Using High-Impedance Neutral Grounding (Type lb: See Figure 8.5)
256(1)
8.7.6 Added Protection for 100% Generator Ground Protection with High-Resistance Grounding
257(2)
8.7.7 High-Voltage Ground-Fault Coupling Can Produce V0 in High-Impedance Grounding Systems
259(2)
8.7.8 Ground-Fault Protection for Multidirect-Connected Generators Using High-Resistance Grounding
261(1)
8.8 Multiple Generator Units Connected Directly to a Transformer: Grounding and Protection
261(1)
8.9 Field Ground Protection (64)
262(1)
8.10 Generator Off-Line Protection
262(1)
8.11 Reduced or Lost_Excitation Protection (40)
262(4)
8.11.1 Loss of Excitation Protection with Distance (21) Relays
262(4)
8.11.2 Loss of Excitation Protection with a Var-Type Relay
266(1)
8.12 Generator Protection for System Disturbances and Operational Hazards
266(6)
8.12.1 Loss of Prime Mover: Generator Motoring (32)
267(1)
8.12.2 Overexcitation: Volts per Hertz Protection (24)
267(1)
8.12.3 Inadvertent Energization: Nonsynchronized Connection (67)
268(1)
8.12.4 Breaker Pole Flashover (61)
268(1)
8.12.5 Thermal Overload (49)
269(1)
8.12.6 Off-Frequency Operation
269(1)
8.12.7 Overvoltage
270(1)
8.12.8 Loss of Synchronism: Out-of-Step
270(1)
8.12.9 Subsynchronous Oscillations
271(1)
8.13 Loss of Voltage Transformer Signal
272(1)
8.14 Generator Breaker Failure
273(1)
8.15 Excitation System Protection and Limiters
273(3)
8.15.1 Field Grounds
274(1)
8.15.2 Field Overexcitation
274(1)
8.15.3 Field Underexcitation
275(1)
8.15.4 Practical Considerations
275(1)
8.16 Synchronous Condenser Protection
276(1)
8.17 Generator-Tripping Systems
276(1)
8.18 Station Auxiliary Service System
276(1)
8.19 Distributed Generator Intertie Protection
277(14)
8.19.1 Power Quality Protection
278(5)
8.19.2 Power System Fault Protection
283(1)
8.19.3 System Protection for Faults on Distributed Generator Facilities
284(1)
8.19.4 Other Intertie Protection Considerations
285(1)
8.19.5 Induction Generators/Static Inverters/Wind Farms
285(4)
8.19.5.1 Induction Generators
285(1)
8.19.5.2 Inverters
286(2)
8.19.5.3 Wind Farms
288(1)
8.19.6 Practical Considerations of Distributed Generation
289(2)
8.20 Protection Summary
291(1)
Bibliography
292(3)
Chapter 9 Transformer, Reactor, and Shunt Capacitor Protection 295(76)
9.1 Transformers
295(2)
9.2 Factors Affecting Differential Protection
297(1)
9.3 False Differential Current
298(3)
9.3.1 Magnetization Inrush
298(2)
9.3.2 Overexcitation
300(1)
9.3.3 Current Transformer Saturation
301(1)
9.4 Transformer Differential Relay Characteristics
301(2)
9.5 Application and Connection of Transformer Differential Relays
303(1)
9.6 Example: Differential Protection Connections for a Two-Winding Wye–Delta Transformer Bank
304(3)
9.6.1 First Step: Phasing
304(2)
9.6.2 Second Step: CT Ratio and Tap Selections
306(1)
9.7 Load Tap-Changing Transformers
307(1)
9.8 Example: Differential Protection Connections for Multiwinding Transformer Bank
308(3)
9.9 Application of Auxiliaries for Current Balancing
311(1)
9.10 Paralleling CTs in Differential Circuits
311(2)
9.11 Special Connections for Transformer Differential Relays
313(2)
9.12 Differential Protection for Three-Phase Banks of Single-Phase Transformer Units
315(1)
9.13 Ground (Zero-Sequence) Differential Protection for Transformers
316(1)
9.14 Equipment for Transfer Trip Systems
317(1)
9.14.1 Fault Switch
317(1)
9.14.2 Communication Channel
318(1)
9.14.3 Limited Fault-Interruption Device
318(1)
9.15 Mechanical Fault Detection for Transformers
318(1)
9.15.1 Gas Detection
318(1)
9.15.2 Sudden Pressure
319(1)
9.16 Grounding Transformer Protection
319(2)
9.17 Ground Differential Protection with Directional Relays
321(3)
9.18 Protection of Regulating Transformers
324(1)
9.19 Transformer Overcurrent Protection
324(4)
9.20 Transformer Overload-through-Fault-Withstand Standards
328(2)
9.21 Examples: Transformer Overcurrent Protection
330(9)
9.21.1 Industrial Plant or Similar Facility Served by a 2500 kVA, 12 kV: 480 V Transformer with 5.75% Impedance
331(4)
9.21.2 Distribution or Similar Facility Served by a 7500 kVA, 115: 12 kV Transformer with7.8% Impedance
335(2)
9.21.3 Substation Served by a 12/16/20 MVA, 115: 12.5 kV Transformer with 10% Impedance
337(2)
9.22 Transformer Thermal Protection
339(1)
9.23 Overvoltage on Transformers
339(1)
9.24 Summary: Typical Protection for Transformers
340(5)
9.24.1 Individual Transformer Units
340(1)
9.24.2 Parallel Transformer Units
341(3)
9.24.3 Redundancy Requirements for Bulk Power Transformers
344(1)
9.25 Reactors
345(2)
9.25.1 Types of Reactors
345(1)
9.25.2 General Application of Shunt Reactors
346(1)
9.25.3 Reactor Protection
346(1)
9.26 Capacitors
347(1)
9.27 Power System Reactive Requirements
347(1)
9.28 Shunt Capacitor Applications
348(1)
9.29 Capacitor Bank Designs
349(1)
9.30 Distribution Capacitors Bank Protection
350(1)
9.31 Designs and Limitations of Large Capacitor Banks
351(3)
9.32 Protection of Large Capacitor Banks
354(5)
9.33 Series Capacitor Bank Protection
359(1)
9.34 Capacitor Bank Protection Application Issues
360(1)
Bibliography
361(1)
Appendix 9.1 Application of Digital Transformer Differential Relays
362(9)
Chapter 10 Bus Protection 371(20)
10.1 Introduction: Typical Bus Arrangements
371(2)
10.2 Single Breaker–Single Bus
373(1)
10.3 Single Buses Connected with Bus Ties
373(1)
10.4 Main and Transfer Buses with Single Breakers
374(3)
10.5 Single Breaker–Double Bus
377(1)
10.6 Double Breaker–Double Bus
378(1)
10.7 Ring Bus
378(1)
10.8 Breaker-and-Half Bus
378(1)
10.9 Transformer–Bus Combination
379(1)
10.10 General Summary of Buses
379(1)
10.11 Differential Protection for Buses
379(7)
10.11.1 Multirestraint Current Differential
381(2)
10.11.2 High-Impedance Voltage Differential
383(1)
10.11.3 Air-Core Transformer Differential
384(1)
10.11.4 Moderate High-Impedance Differential
385(1)
10.12 Other Bus Differential Systems
386(3)
10.12.1 Time–Overcurrent Differential
386(1)
10.12.2 Directional Comparison Differential
386(1)
10.12.3 Partial Differential
386(2)
10.12.4 Short Time-Delay Scheme: Instantaneous Blocking
388(1)
10.13 Ground-Fault Bus
389(1)
10.14 Protection Summary
389(1)
10.15 Bus Protection: Practical Considerations
389(1)
Bibliography
390(1)
Chapter 11 Motor Protection 391(24)
11.1 Introduction
391(1)
11.2 Potential Motor Hazards
391(1)
11.3 Motor Characteristics Involved in Protection
392(1)
11.4 Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit
393(2)
11.5 General Motor Protection
395(1)
11.6 Phase-Fault Protection
395(2)
11.7 Differential Protection
397(1)
11.8 Ground-Fault Protection
398(2)
11.9 Thermal and Locked-Rotor Protection
400(2)
11.10 Locked-Rotor Protection for Large Motors (21)
402(1)
11.11 System Unbalance and Motors
403(5)
11.12 Unbalance and Phase Rotation Protection
408(1)
11.13 Undervoltage Protection
409(1)
11.14 Bus Transfer and Reclosing
409(1)
11.15 Repetitive Starts and Jogging Protection
410(1)
11.16 Multifunction Microprocessor Motor Protection Units
410(1)
11.17 Synchronous Motor Protection
411(1)
11.18 Summary: Typical Protection for Motors
411(1)
11.19 Practical Considerations of Motor Protection
412(1)
Bibliography
413(2)
Chapter 12 Line Protection 415(58)
12.1 Classifications of Lines and Feeders
415(3)
12.2 Line Classifications for Protection
418(2)
12.2.1 Distribution Lines
419(1)
12.2.2 Transmission and Subtransmission Lines
420(1)
12.3 Techniques and Equipment for Line Protection
420(4)
12.3.1 Fuses
421(1)
12.3.2 Automatic Circuit Reclosers
421(1)
12.3.3 Sectionalizers
422(1)
12.3.4 Coordinating Time Interval
422(2)
12.4 Coordination Fundamentals and General Setting Criteria
424(2)
12.4.1 Phase Time–Overcurrent Relay Setting
425(1)
12.4.2 Ground Time–Overcurrent Relay Setting
425(1)
12.4.3 Phase and Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay Setting
426(1)
12.5 Distribution Feeder, Radial Line Protection, and Coordination
426(3)
12.6 Example: Coordination for a Typical Distribution Feeder
429(4)
12.6.1 Practical Distribution Coordination Considerations
432(1)
12.7 Distributed Generators and Other Sources Connected to Distribution Lines
433(1)
12.8 Example: Coordination for a Loop System
434(6)
12.9 Instantaneous Trip Application for a Loop System
440(1)
12.10 Short-Line Applications
441(1)
12.11 Network and Spot Network Systems
442(1)
12.12 Distance Protection for Phase Faults
442(3)
12.13 Distance Relay Applications for Tapped and Multiterminal Lines
445(2)
12.14 Voltage Sources for Distance Relays
447(1)
12.15 Distance Relay Applications in Systems Protected by Inverse-Time–Overcurrent Relays
448(1)
12.16 Ground-Fault Protection for Lines
448(1)
12.17 Distance Protection for Ground Faults and Direction Overcurrent Comparisons
448(2)
12.18 Fault Resistance and Relaying
450(2)
12.19 Directional Sensing for Ground–Overcurrent Relays
452(1)
12.20 Polarizing Problems with Autotransformers
453(3)
12.21 Voltage Polarization Limitations
456(1)
12.22 Dual Polarization for Ground Relaying
456(1)
12.23 Ground Directional Sensing with Negative Sequence
457(1)
12.24 Mutual Coupling and Ground Relaying
457(6)
12.25 Ground Distance Relaying with Mutual Induction
463(1)
12.26 Long EHV Series-Compensated Line Protection
464(1)
12.27 Backup: Remote, Local, and Breaker Failure
465(4)
12.28 Summary: Typical Protection for Lines
469(1)
12.29 Practical Considerations of Line Protection
470(1)
Bibliography
470(3)
Chapter 13 Pilot Protection 473(46)
13.1 Introduction
473(1)
13.2 Pilot System Classifications
473(1)
13.3 Protection Channel Classifications
474(1)
13.4 Directional Comparison Blocking Pilot Systems
475(2)
13.5 Directional Comparison Unblocking Pilot System
477(2)
13.5.1 Normal-Operating Condition (No Faults)
478(1)
13.5.2 Channel Failure
479(1)
13.5.3 External Fault on Bus G or in the System to the Left
479(1)
13.5.4 Internal Faults in the Protected Zone
479(1)
13.6 Directional Comparison Overreaching Transfer Trip Pilot Systems
479(2)
13.6.1 External Fault on Bus G or in the System to the Left
481(1)
13.6.2 Internal Faults in the Protected Zone
481(1)
13.7 Directional Comparison Underreaching Transfer Trip Pilot Systems
481(2)
13.7.1 Zone Acceleration
483(1)
13.8 Phase Comparison: Pilot Wire Relaying (Wire Line Channels)
483(3)
13.9 Phase Comparison: Audio Tone or Fiber-Optic Channels
486(2)
13.9.1 External Fault on Bus H or in the System to the Right
486(1)
13.9.2 Internal Faults in the Protected Zone
487(1)
13.10 Segregated Phase Comparison Pilot Systems
488(1)
13.11 Single-Pole–Selective-Pole Pilot Systems
488(1)
13.12 Directional Wave Comparison Systems
489(1)
13.13 Digital Current Differential
490(1)
13.14 Pilot Scheme Enhancements
490(1)
13.14.1 Transient Blocking
490(1)
13.14.2 Weak Infeed Logic
491(1)
13.14.3 Breaker Open Keying
491(1)
13.15 Transfer Trip Systems
491(1)
13.16 Communication Channels for Protection
492(4)
13.16.1 Power-Line Carrier: On–Off or Frequency Shift
492(2)
13.16.2 Pilot Wires: Audio-Tone Transmission
494(1)
13.16.3 Pilot Wires: 50 or 60 Hz Transmission
494(1)
13.16.4 Digital Channels
494(2)
13.17 Digital Line Current Differential Systems
496(12)
13.17.1 Characteristics of Line Differential Schemes
496(1)
13.17.2 Line Differential Issues
497(5)
13.17.2.1 Current Sample Alignment
498(1)
13.17.2.2 Current Transformer Saturation
499(1)
13.17.2.3 Line Charging Current
500(1)
13.17.2.4 Sensitivity
500(2)
13.17.3 Line Differential Design Enhancements
502(6)
13.17.3.1 Sensitivity Enhancement
502(1)
13.17.3.2 Maintaining Adequate Data Alignment
503(1)
13.17.3.3 Mitigating Impacts of Current Transformer Saturation
503(1)
13.17.3.4 Accounting for Line Charging Current
504(1)
13.17.3.5 Current-Ratio Differential Concept
504(4)
13.17.4 Line Differential Application
508(1)
13.18 Pilot Relaying: Operating Experiences
508(2)
13.19 Summary
510(2)
Bibliography
512(1)
Appendix 13.1 Protection of Wire Line Pilot Circuits
513(6)
Chapter 14 Stability, Reclosing, Load Shedding, and Trip Circuit Design 519(34)
14.1 Introduction
519(1)
14.2 Electric Power and Power Transmission
519(2)
14.3 Steady-State Operation and Stability
521(1)
14.4 Transient Operation and Stability
521(3)
14.5 System Swings and Protection
524(5)
14.6 Out-of-Step Detection by Distance Relays
529(2)
14.7 Automatic Line Reclosing
531(1)
14.8 Distribution Feeder Reclosing
532(1)
14.9 Subtransmission and Transmission-Line Reclosing
533(2)
14.10 Reclosing on Lines with Transformers or Reactors
535(1)
14.11 Automatic Synchronizing
535(1)
14.12 Frequency Relaying for Load Shedding–Load Saving
535(2)
14.13 Underfrequency Load-Shedding Design
537(4)
14.13.1 Underfrequency Load-Shedding Criteria
537(1)
14.13.2 Underfrequency Load-Shedding Scheme Architecture
538(1)
14.13.3 Underfrequency Control Scheme Design
539(2)
14.14 Performance of Underfrequency Load-Shedding Schemes
541(1)
14.15 Frequency Relaying for Industrial Systems
541(1)
14.16 Voltage Collapse
542(1)
14.17 Voltage Collapse Mitigating Techniques
542(1)
14.18 Protection and Control Trip Circuits
543(1)
14.19 Substation DC Systems
544(1)
14.20 Trip Circuit Devices
545(3)
14.20.1 Auxiliary Relays
545(1)
14.20.2 Targeting and Seal-In Devices
546(1)
14.20.3 Switches and Diodes
546(1)
14.20.4 Trip Coils
547(1)
14.21 Trip Circuit Design
548(1)
14.22 Trip Circuit Monitoring and Alarms
548(2)
14.23 Special Protection Schemes
550(1)
14.24 Practical Considerations: Special Protection Schemes
551(1)
Bibliography
552(1)
Chapter 15 Microprocessor Applications and Substation Automation 553(28)
15.1 Introduction
553(1)
15.2 Microprocessor-Based Relay Designs
554(1)
15.3 Programmable Logic Controllers
555(1)
15.4 Application of Microprocessor Relays
555(1)
15.5 Programming of Microprocessor Relaying
556(7)
15.5.1 Boolean Algebra
556(6)
15.5.2 Control Equation Elements
562(1)
15.5.3 Binary Elements
562(1)
15.5.4 Analog Quantities
562(1)
15.5.5 Math Operators
562(1)
15.5.6 Settings
562(1)
15.6 Attributes of Microprocessor-Based Relays
563(1)
15.7 Protection Enhancements
563(5)
15.7.1 Distribution Protection Systems
564(3)
15.7.2 Transmission Protection Systems
567(1)
15.8 Multifunctional Capability
568(1)
15.9 Wiring Simplification
569(1)
15.10 Event Reports
569(2)
15.10.1 Types of Event Reports
570(1)
15.11 Commissioning and Periodic Testing
571(2)
15.12 Setting Specifications and Documentation
573(1)
15.13 Fault Location
574(2)
15.14 Power System Automation
576(2)
15.15 Practical Observations: Microprocessor Relay Application
578(1)
Bibliography
579(2)
Chapter 16 Improving Protective System Performance 581(38)
16.1 Performance Measurement Techniques
582(1)
16.2 Measuring Protective System Performance
583(1)
16.3 Analyzing Protective System Misoperations
583(3)
16.3.1 Parameters for Measuring Protective System Performance
584(1)
16.3.2 Regulatory Issues
585(1)
16.4 NERC Standard PRC-004
586(1)
16.5 Procedures for Implementing PRC-004
587(1)
16.6 Tools for Analyzing Power System Events
588(8)
16.6.1 Fault Recorders
590(2)
16.6.2 Dynamic Disturbance Recorders
592(2)
16.6.3 Sequence-of-Events Recorders
594(2)
16.7 Overview of Major Power Outages
596(4)
16.7.1 Northeast Blackout (November 9, 1965)
596(1)
16.7.2 West Coast Blackout (July 2, 1996)
597(1)
16.7.3 Northeast United States/Canadian Blackout (August 14, 2003)
598(1)
16.7.4 Florida Blackout (February 26, 2008)
598(1)
16.7.5 Pacific Southwest Outage (September 8, 2011)
599(1)
16.7.6 Summary
599(1)
16.8 Relay Setting Loadability
600(4)
16.8.1 Three-Terminal Lines
600(2)
16.8.2 Remote Backup Protection
602(2)
16.9 NERC StandarcIPRC-023
604(6)
16.9.1 Loadability of Distance Relays
605(2)
16.9.2 Requirements for Transformer Overload Settings
607(1)
16.9.3 Loadability of Pilot Schemes
607(2)
16.9.3.1 Loadability of DCB Pilot Schemes
608(1)
16.9.3.2 Loadability of POTT Pilot Schemes
609(1)
16.9.4 Switch-On-to-Fault Loadability
609(1)
16.10 Loadability Limits on Non-BES Lines
610(2)
16.11 Generator Trips during Disturbances
612(1)
16.12 Protection System Maintenance
613(1)
16.13 Grid Automation: Protection Aspects
614(3)
16.14 Summary
617(1)
Bibliography
617(2)
Chapter 17 Problems 619(28)
Index 647
Thomas J. Domin is a registered professional engineer in the state of Pennsylvania, USA. Much of his experience working with electrical power systems was gained during his 40 years at PPL, Inc., a midsized electric utility headquartered in Allentown, Pennsylvania. The scope of his work covers the development of protection standards and practices, specifications for relaying and control logic requirements for protective systems, specifications for protective relay settings, and the analysis of disturbances in electric power systems. In addition to working on electrical systems within the US, he has worked on international projects involving electrical protection and power system operations.
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