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E-raamat: Wind Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment

(West Texas A&M University, Canyon, USA), (West Texas A&M University, Canyon, USA)
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The utilization of wind power and other renewable energy sources has been growing at a phenomenal rate. Wind Energy, Third Edition explores the wind industry from its inception in the 1970s to today; presents the design, aerodynamics, operation, control, applications, as well as different types of wind turbines. An overview of energy examines world consumption and use of fossil fuels, and includes a section on global climate change. It covers the characteristics of wind, such as shear, power potential, and turbulence, and discusses the measurement and siting of individual wind turbines and wind farms. It also discusses the political and economic factors regarding the adoption of wind as an energy source.

Features











Includes updates throughout, and adds new material on wind forecasting, offshore wind, decommissioning and repowering wind farms, and more











Illustrates the need for a shift to renewable energy through discussions on energy use and the order of magnitude estimates for the lifetime of fossil fuels





Discusses the interconnection of wind turbines to utility grids, regulations on installation and operation, and the related environmental concerns





Presents important economic considerations for the development of wind farms





Provides an abundance of examples that highlight the real-world advantages of wind energy over fossil fuels
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Authors xv
Chapter 1 Introduction 1(14)
1.1 History
1(10)
1.1.1 Dutch Windmills
1(1)
1.1.2 Farm Windmills
2(2)
1.1.3 Wind Chargers
4(2)
1.1.4 Generation of Electricity for Utilities
6(5)
1.2 Wind Farms
11(2)
1.3 Small Systems
13(1)
1.4 Distributed Wind
13(1)
Links
14(1)
References
14(1)
Chapter 2 Energy 15(34)
2.1 General
15(5)
2.1.1 Renewable Energy
18(1)
2.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable Energy
18(1)
2.1.3 Economics
19(1)
2.2 Definitions of Energy and Power
20(1)
2.3 Fundamentals Concerning Energy
21(1)
2.4 Energy Dilemma in Light of the Laws of Thermodynamics
22(2)
2.4.1 Conservation
22(1)
2.4.2 Efficiency
22(2)
2.5 Exponential Growth
24(2)
2.6 Use of Fossil Fuels
26(5)
2.6.1 Petroleum
27(2)
2.6.2 Natural Gas
29(1)
2.6.3 Coal
30(1)
2.7 Nuclear
31(1)
2.8 Mathematics of Exponential Growth
32(1)
2.8.1 Doubling Time
33(1)
2.8.2 Resource Consumption
33(1)
2.9 Lifetime of a Finite Resource
33(2)
2.10 Climate Change
35(7)
2.10.1 Climate Change-A
36(1)
2.10.2 Greenhouse Effect
37(1)
2.10.3 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
38(1)
2.10.4 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
39(1)
2.10.5 Policy
40(1)
2.10.6 Information and Comments
40(2)
2.10.7 Geoengineering
42(1)
2.11 Summary
42(2)
General
44(1)
Questions/Activities
44(1)
Problems
44(2)
Links
46(1)
References
46(3)
Chapter 3 Wind Characteristics 49(20)
3.1 Global Circulation
49(1)
3.2 Extractable Limits of Wind Power
49(2)
3.3 Wind Power
51(2)
3.4 Wind Shear
53(4)
3.5 Wind Direction
57(1)
3.6 Wind Power Potential
58(1)
3.7 Turbulence
59(1)
3.8 Wind Speed Histograms
60(1)
3.9 Duration Curve
61(1)
3.10 Variations in Wind Power Potential
62(1)
3.11 Wind Speed Distributions
63(2)
3.12 General Comments
65(1)
Questions/Activities
65(1)
Problems
65(2)
Links
67(1)
References
67(2)
Chapter 4 Wind Resource Assessment 69(22)
4.1 United States
70(3)
4.2 European Union
73(1)
4.3 Other Countries
74(1)
4.4 Ocean Winds
74(3)
4.4.1 United States
76(1)
4.4.2 World
77(1)
4.5 Instrumentation
77(8)
4.5.1 Cup and Propeller Anemometers
80(2)
4.5.2 Wind Direction
82(1)
4.5.3 Instrument Characteristics
82(1)
4.5.4 Measurement
82(1)
4.5.5 Vegetation Indicators
83(2)
4.6 Data Loggers
85(1)
4.7 Wind Measurement for Small Wind Turbines
86(1)
Problems
87(1)
References
88(3)
Chapter 5 Wind Turbines 91(26)
5.1 Drag Devices
91(1)
5.2 Lift Devices
91(1)
5.3 Orientation of Rotor Axis
92(3)
5.4 System Description
95(1)
5.5 Aerodynamics
96(3)
5.6 Control
99(3)
5.6.1 Normal Operation
101(1)
5.6.2 Faults
101(1)
5.7 Energy Production
102(1)
5.7.1 Generator Size
102(1)
5.7.2 Rotor Area and Wind Map
103(1)
5.7.3 Manufacturer's Curve
103(1)
5.8 Calculated Annual Energy
103(2)
5.9 Innovative Wind Power Systems
105(7)
5.10 Applications
112(2)
5.10.1 Electrical Energy
113(1)
5.10.2 Mechanical Energy
113(1)
5.10.3 Thermal Energy
113(1)
5.10.4 Wind Hybrid Systems
114(1)
5.11 Summary
114(1)
Problems
114(1)
Links
115(1)
References
115(2)
Chapter 6 Design of Wind Turbines 117(30)
6.1 Introduction
117(1)
6.2 Aerodynamics
117(1)
6.3 Mathematical Terms
118(1)
6.4 Drag Device
119(1)
6.5 Lift Device
120(4)
6.5.1 Maximum Theoretical Power
123(1)
6.5.2 Rotation
123(1)
6.6 Aerodynamic Performance Prediction
124(6)
6.7 Measured Power and Power Coefficient
130(2)
6.8 Construction
132(8)
6.8.1 Blades
132(5)
6.8.2 Other Components of System
137(3)
6.9 Evolution
140(1)
6.10 Small Wind Turbines
141(2)
Problems
143(2)
References
145(2)
Chapter 7 Electrical Issues 147(20)
7.1 Fundamentals
147(5)
7.1.1 Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction
150(1)
7.1.2 Phase Angle and Power Factor
150(2)
7.2 Generators
152(6)
7.2.1 Induction Generator, Constant rpm Operation
153(3)
7.2.2 Doubly Fed Induction Generator, Variable rpm Operation
156(1)
7.2.3 Direct-Drive Generator, Variable rpm Operation
156(1)
7.2.4 Permanent Magnet Alternator, Variable rpm Operation
156(1)
7.2.5 Generator Comparisons
157(1)
7.2.6 Generator Examples
157(1)
7.3 Power Quality
158(2)
7.4 Electronics
160(3)
7.4.1 Controllers
160(2)
7.4.2 Power Electronics
162(1)
7.4.3 Inverters
162(1)
7.5 Lightning
163(1)
7.6 Resistance Dump Load
163(1)
Problems
164(1)
Links
164(1)
References
165(2)
Chapter 8 Performance 167(30)
8.1 Measures of Performance
167(2)
8.2 Historical Wind Statistics
169(1)
8.3 Wind Farm Performance
169(8)
8.3.1 California Wind Farms
170(3)
8.3.2 Wind Farms in Other States
173(2)
8.3.3 Other Countries
175(2)
8.4 Wake Effects
177(2)
8.5 Enertech 44
179(3)
8.6 Bergey Excel
182(1)
8.7 Water Pumping
183(2)
8.7.1 Farm Windmills
184(1)
8.7.2 Electric-to-Electric Systems
185(1)
8.8 Wind-Diesel and Hybrid Systems
185(3)
8.9 Blade Performance
188(4)
8.9.1 Surface Roughness
188(3)
8.9.2 Boundary Layer Control
191(1)
8.9.3 Vortex Generators
191(1)
8.9.4 Flow Visualization
191(1)
8.10 Comments
192(1)
Problems
193(2)
References
195(2)
Chapter 9 Siting 197(22)
9.1 Small Wind Turbines
197(5)
9.1.1 Noise
201(1)
9.1.2 Visual Impact
201(1)
9.2 Wind Farms
202(2)
9.2.1 Long-Term Reference Stations
202(1)
9.2.2 Siting for Wind Farms
203(1)
9.3 Digital Maps
204(1)
9.4 Geographic Information Systems
204(1)
9.5 Wind Resource Screening
205(4)
9.5.1 Estimated Texas Wind Power (Pacific Northwest Laboratory)
206(1)
9.5.2 Estimated Texas Wind Power (Alternative Energy Institute)
207(2)
9.5.3 Wind Power for the United States
209(1)
9.6 Numerical Models
209(1)
9.7 Micrositing
210(3)
9.8 Ocean Winds
213(1)
9.9 Summary
214(1)
Problems
214(1)
Links
215(1)
References
216(3)
Chapter 10 Applications and Wind Industry 219(44)
10.1 Utility Scale
219(3)
10.2 Small Wind Turbines
222(4)
10.3 Distributed Systems
226(2)
10.4 Community Wind
228(4)
10.4.1 United States
228(3)
10.4.1.1 Minnesota
229(1)
10.4.1.2 Schools, Colleges, and Universities
229(1)
10.4.1.3 Electric Cooperatives
230(1)
10.4.1.4 Municipal and City Operations
230(1)
10.4.2 Other Countries
231(1)
10.5 Wind-Diesel Generation
232(4)
10.6 Village Power
236(3)
10.6.1 China
238(1)
10.6.2 Case Study: Wind Village Power System
238(1)
10.7 Water Pumping
239(3)
10.7.1 Design of Wind Pumping System
241(1)
10.7.2 Large Systems
241(1)
10.8 Wind Industry
242(6)
10.8.1 1980-1990
244(1)
10.8.2 1990-2000
244(1)
10.8.3 2000-2010
245(2)
10.8.4 2010-Onward
247(1)
10.9 Storage
248(7)
10.9.1 Compressed Air Energy Storage
251(1)
10.9.2 Flywheels
251(1)
10.9.3 Batteries
252(2)
10.9.3.1 Lead Acid
252(1)
10.9.3.2 Lithium (Li) Ion
253(1)
10.9.3.3 Sodium-Sulfur
253(1)
10.9.3.4 Flow Batteries
254(1)
10.9.4 Other Types of Batteries
254(1)
10.9.5 Hydrogen Fuel Cells
254(1)
10.10 Decommissioning and Repowering
255(2)
10.10.1 United States
257(1)
10.11 Comments
257(1)
Problems
258(1)
Links
259(1)
References
259(4)
Chapter 11 Institutional Issues 263(20)
11.1 Avoided Costs
263(1)
11.2 Utility Concerns
264(2)
11.2.1 Safety
264(1)
11.2.2 Power Quality
265(1)
11.2.3 Connection to Utility
265(1)
11.2.4 Ancillary Costs
266(1)
11.3 Regulations
266(1)
11.4 Environment
266(4)
11.5 Politics
270(1)
11.6 Incentives
270(6)
11.6.1 United States
271(3)
11.6.1.1 State Incentives
272(1)
11.6.1.2 Green Power
273(1)
11.6.1.3 Net Metering
274(1)
11.6.2 Other Countries
274(2)
11.7 Externalities
276(2)
11.8 Transmission
278(2)
Problems
280(1)
References
281(2)
Chapter 12 Economics 283(22)
12.1 Factors Affecting Economics
283(1)
12.2 General Comments
284(1)
12.3 Economic Analysis
285(4)
12.3.1 Simple Payback
285(1)
12.3.2 Cost of Energy
286(3)
12.3.3 Value of Energy
289(1)
12.4 Life Cycle Costs
289(2)
12.5 Present Worth and Levelized Costs
291(1)
12.6 Externalities
292(1)
12.7 Wind Project Development
292(4)
12.7.1 Costs
293(2)
12.7.2 Benefits
295(1)
12.7.3 Sales of Electricity
295(1)
12.8 Hybrid Systems
296(2)
12.9 Summary
298(2)
12.10 Future Developments
300(1)
Problems
301(1)
Links
302(1)
References
303(2)
Index 305
Dr. Vaughn Nelson has been involved with renewable energy, primarily wind energy, since the early 1970s. He is the author of four books (five books on CD) and has published more than 50 articles and reports. He also served as the principal investigator on numerous grants and conducted more than 60 workshops and seminars from local to international levels. Dr. Nelsons primary work focused on wind resource assessment, education and training, applied research and development, and rural applications of wind energy. Presently, he is a Professor Emeritus of physics at West Texas A&M University (WTAMU). He retired as the Dean of the Graduate School, Research, and Information Technology in 2001. He was founder of the Alternative Energy Institute (AEI) and director from its inception in 1977 through 2003. He returned as director for another year in July 2009. The Alternative Energy Institute was terminated in 2015. Dr. Nelson served on a number of State of Texas Committees, most notably the Texas Energy Coordination Council, for 11 years. He received three awards from the American Wind Energy Association, one of which was the Lifetime Achievement Award in 2003, was named a Texas Wind Legend by the Texas Renewable Industries Association in 2010, and received an award for Outstanding Wind Leadership in Education from Wind Powering America in 2013. He also served on the boards of directors for state and national renewable energy organizations. In the series, Energy and the Environment, Dr. Nelson is the author of Wind Energy (2009; Second Edition, 2013) and Introduction to Renewable Energy (2011) and with Kenneth Starcher the Second Edition (2015) and also with Kenneth Starcher, Introduction to Bioenergy (2016). Dr. Nelson earned a PhD in physics from the University of Kansas, an EdM from Harvard University, and a BSE from Kansas State Teachers College in Emporia. He was a member of the Departamento de Fisica, Universidad de Oriente, Cumana, Venezuela for 2 years and then was at WTAMU from 1969 until his retirement.

Kenneth Starcher began his college career and involvement with renewables the same semester, Fall 1976. It led to a BS in physics/computer science at West Texas State University (1980) and then in 19801981 he was at Texas Tech University taking courses in electrical engineering, electronics, and physics. He received an MS in engineering technology at WTAMU (1995), and then took some courses in agricultural economics at WTAMU. Starcher has been the field worker for most of the projects at the Alternative Energy Institute (AEI) since 1980. He has been the educational funnel for on-site training and public information for students and public workshops for AEI. He has served as a trainer at wind and solar training workshops locally, nationally, and internationally. He served as a research technician, research associate, assistant director, director, and associate director (Training, Education and Outreach) for the Alternative Energy Institute from 1977 to 2015. He served as a board member of the American Wind Energy Association, was on the Executive Board of Class 4 Winds and Renewables, was chosen as the Individual Member of the year for the Texas Renewable Energy Association in 2005, the Small Wind Educator at the Small Wind Conference in 2010, and was awarded an Outstanding Wind Leadership Education Award from Wind Powering America in 2013. Starcher has installed and operated more than 85 different renewable energy systems, ranging in scale from 50 W to 500 kW. He has served as a consultant for wind companies in the United States and produced wind resources maps for U.S. counties and states, as well as for Honduras and Thailand.